TtT:e mnxul Stimtt S>txxt& 

Edited by L. H. Batley 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
VEGETABLE - GARDENING 



Tte 'IR^urEl Srienr^ S^ri^5 

The Soil. 

The Spraying of Plants. 

Milk and its Products. 

The Fertility of the Land. 

The Principles of Fruit-Growing. 

Bush-Fruits. 

Fertilizers. 

The Principles of Agriculture. 

Irrigation and Drainage. 

The Farmstead. 

Rural Wealth and Welfare. 

The Principles of Vegetable-Gardening. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
VEGETABLE - GARDENING 



BY 

L. H. BAILEY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 

1901 

All rights reserved 



Library of Congreaa 

Two Copies IfeEtvED 
FEB 8 1901 

^ Copyright entry 

SECOND COPY 



Copyright, 1901 
By L. H. BAILEY 



J. Horace McFarland Company 
Harrisburg • Pennsylvania 



^ \i CONTENTS 

PART I 
GENERAL VIEW 

CHAPTEK I 

. PAGES 

The Lay -Out of the Plantation 1-43 

1. The Ideals ill Vegetable- Gardening 3 

2. The Geography of Vegetable -Gardening- ....... 6 

3. The Extent of Vegetable -Gardening ........ 12 

4. Equipment and Capital 19 

5. The Home Garden 31 

CHAPTER II 

Glass 44-79 

1 . Quantity and Cost of Glass Required 45 

2. The Making of Frames . 50 

3. Hotbeds 54 

4. Coldframes and Forcing-hills . 67 

5. The Management of Frames 72 

CHAPTER III 

The Soil and its Treatment 80-106 

1. The Amelioration of the Land 85 

2. The Fertilizing of the Land 94 

(v) 



vi 



Contents 



CHAPTER IV 

PAGES 

Vegetable -Gardening Tools 107-121 

CHAPTER V 

Seeds and Seedage 122-171 

1. The Longevity of Seeds 122 

2. Preservation of Seeds 141 

3. Testing of Seeds 143 

4. The Sowing of Seeds 155 

5. The Growing of Seeds 165 

CHAPTER VI 

Subsequent Management of the Vegetable -Garden . . 172-213 

1. Irrigation 173 

2. Double -Cropping 181 

3. Transplanting 187 

4. Choosing the Varieties 194 

5. Weeds 196 

6. Insects and Fungi 199 

CHAPTER VII 

Marketing and Storing 214-235 

1. Packing 215 

2. Storing 224 



CmUents rii 

PART II 
VEGETABLE- GAEDENING CROPS 

CHAPTER VIII 

PAGES 

Introductory Discussion 237-270 

1. Classification of Crops . 238 

2. Books 242 

CHAPTER IX 

Root Crops 271-300 

Radish 273 

Beet 277 

Carrot 281 

Turnip -rooted Chervil 284 

Turnip 285 

Rutabaga 288 

Parsnip 288 

Salsify 291 

Scorzonera, or Black Salsify 292 

Scolymus, or Spanish Salsify 293 

Horse-radish 294 

CHAPTER X 

Tuber Crops 301-313 

Potato . 301 

Swe^t Potato 310 



Contents 
CHAPTER XI 

PAGES 

314-328 

316 



CHAPTER XII 

Cole Crops 329-346 

Cabbage .329 

Kale or Borecole 339 

Brussels Sprouts 340 

Cauliflower "341 

Kohlrabi 343 

CHAPTER XIII 

Pot -Herb Crops 347-355 

Spinach 347 

Other Grreens 351 

CHAPTER XIV 

Salad Crops 356-379 

Lettuce 357 

Endive 361 

Chicory 363 

Cress 365 

Corn Salad 367 

Parsley * . . 368 

Salad Chervil 369 

Celery 370 

Celeriac 379 



Vlll 

VI 



Bulb Crops 
Onion 



Contents ix 
CHAPTER XV 

PAGES 

Pulse Crops 380-391 

Pea 380 

Beans 383 

CHAPTER XVI 

SoLANACEOUS Crops 392-410 

Tomato 392 

Eggplant 403 

Pepper 408 

Husk Tomato 409 

CHAPTER XVII 

CucuRBiTOUS Crops 411-422 

Cucumber and Gherkin 414 

Muskmelon. 416 

Watermelon 417 

Pumpkin and Squash- • 420 

Other Cucurbits 422 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Sweet Corn. Okra. Martynia 423-428 

Sweet Corn 423 

Okra or Gumbo 427 

Martynia 428 

CHAPTER XIX 

CONDIMENTAL AND SWEET HeRBS 429-432 



X 



Contents 



CHAPTER XX 



PAGES 

Perennial Crops - 433-450 

^^sparagus 433 

Rhubarb or Pie -plant 441 

Docks and Sorrels 445 

Artichoke 446 

Sea-Kale . 449 



Index 



451-458 



THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE - 
GARDENING 



PART I— GENERAL VIEW 
CHAPTER I 

TEE LAY-OUT OF TEE PLANTATION 

Vegetable -GARDENING, or olericulture, is the art 
and business of raising kitchen -garden vegetables, and 
the applications of the various sciences thereto. The 
term kitchen -garden vegetable, or ^Vegetable" in the 
gardener's sense, is impossible of definition. It is 
approximately true to say that the term applies to the 
edible part of an annual or at least an herbaceous 
plant. Vegetables -are not often used in the dessert, 
and therefore belong more properly to the kitchen than 
do the fruits. There is exception to this in the melon; 
and it is significant that this is often included 
with the fruits by European writers. The only com- 
plete idea of the use of the term is to be obtained 
from a detailed catalogue of the products which are 
called vegetables, and this inventory will be found on 
a later page ; in the meantime, it may be well to say 
that leading vegetables are potatoes, cabbages, onions, 

A (1) 



2 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

tomatoes, asparagus, peas, beans, cucumbers, squashes, 
celery, lettuce. 

Market -gardening is the growing of vegetables for 
sale. The American term truck -gardening is really 
synonymous, although it is sometimes used in connec- 
tion with the larger market -gardening enterprises. An 
arbitrary distinction between market -gardening and 
truck -gardening was made by J. H. Hale in the work 
for the Eleventh Census. In Bulletin 41 of the Census 
Bureau, truck -gardening is understood as the business 
"carried on in favored localities at a distance from 
market, water and rail transportation being necessary," 
while market -gardening is "conducted near local mar- 
kets, the grower of vegetables using his own team for 
transporting his products direct to either the retailer 
or consumer." This distinction is not a fundamental 
one, and is not the general understanding of the 
terms ; but it seemed to be necessary, for statistical 
reasons, to make the separation. 

By common consent, the whole subject of vegetable- 
gardening is considered to belong to that part of hus- 
bandry known as horticulture. In its smaller and 
intenser applications, it is unquestionably horticulture, 
for it is gardening ; but in its larger and looser 
applications, as in the field culture of squashes and 
tomatoes, it is quite as properly agriculture. The sweet 
potato is generally considered to be a horticultural crop, 
particularly in the North, but the Irish or round potato 
is generally regarded as a farm crop. Sweet corn is a 
horticultural crop, whereas other corn is not. These 
examples show that the demarcation between agricul- 



Ideals in VegetahU- Gardening 



3 



ture and horticulture is an arbitrary line. The boun- 
dary is determined almost wholly by custom. It is 
scarcely worth while to attempt to trace it. 

1. THE IDEALS IN VEGETABLE - GARDENING 

The success of any business depends largely on 
the clearness with which its promoter conceives of the 
aims and purposes which he is to attain. Many persons 
grow crops because their fathers grew them, because 
they know how to grow them, or because the land and 
locality are adapted to them. This is well; but it is 
better if the grower can also picture to himself the des- 
tination of the crops which he is to raise. That is, he 
should grow a crop for a distinct purpose. Good farm- 
ing, like any other business, is primarily a matter of 
ideals. 

There are two great types of vegetable -growing, — 
growing for home use, and growing for market or com- 
mercial profit. Leaving aside for the instant the special 
subject of home -gardening, we may observe that mar- 
ket-gardening is itself of two categories, — that which 
grows products for the common and general markets, 
and that which grows them for particular or special 
markets. In the former, the products compete with 
other like products in the open market ; they take their 
chances. In the latter, the products are taken to some 
special customer, and are thereby removed from general 
competition. In the former business, — which is gener- 
ally known as market-gardening proper, — by far the 
greater effort is devoted to the growing of the crops 



4 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

and in securing them at such seasons that they contend 
with the least competition. The chief skill required is 
that of the vegetable -grower; for the business of mar- 
keting is delegated. In the latter business, much effort 
must be given to the hunting out of special customers 
and markets: here the skill of the marketman is nearly 
as important as the skill of the vegetable -grower. 

The growing of vegetables for home use requires 
different abilities than the growing for market. Here 
quality and a uniform and constant supply are the 
desiderata; in the market growing, quantity and attrac- 
tiveness, and a bountiful supply at stated times or sea- 
sons, are the desiderata. The home -use garden should 
receive the more minute and skilful care to develop the 
utmost excellence in the product. The more discrimi- 
nating the home, the greater is the skill required of the 
gardener. There is as much skill required in securing 
a well -grown melon or cauliflower as in raising a violet 
or chrysanthemum. 

Vegetable -gardening for money is not an easy busi- 
ness. In fact, nothing is easy if it is worth the having. 
The competition is great. The margin of profit is small. 
There are risks incident to season, diseases, insects, glut 
in markets. Many of the products are quickly perish- 
able. Quality generally counts for less in vegetables 
than in fruits. Most vegetables are culinary subjects, 
not luxuries; and the prices are therefore not high. 
Nearly every person who has a bit of ground grows a 
few vegetables. In most cases, earliness of crop is a 
prime requisite ; and to secure the crop very early 
requires the closest attention to all the details of the 



The Plant- Grower and the Marhetman 5 

plant -growing. One must often find a personal cus- 
tomer; and this customer rarely takes pains to wait for 
the produce of one grower or to search for it in the 
market, for the supply of vegetables is usually great: 
consequently, the small grower may have to peddle his 
vegetables. In most cases, the market -gardener must 
keep long hours and must work hard. He must not 
expect great reward the first year or two on a new place. 
He must learn his soil, market and climate. If he is a 
good plant-grower and a good business man, he will 
succeed. If he is only a plant -grower, he will probably 
be a slave to the marketman. 

There are many market -gardeners who make great 
profits from given pieces of land, but they are usually 
old hands at the business, and they do not make equal 
profits every year or on every acre. They know the 
markets thoroughly. In particular cases, when com- 
petition is not severe, ample rewards may come easily to 
the novice; but these are the exceptions. A special 
crop well grown, or produced much ahead of the normal 
season or much behind it, may turn a handsome profit. 
Glass -grown products often bring fancy prices; but the 
risks are also great. Some of the best locations for 
small market -gardens are in the neighborhood of small 
cities, where competition is likely to be less severe than 
in the great markets, and where the grower may deal 
directly with the consumer. The man who has a large 
area, and sufficient capital to run it efl:ectively, can 
dictate to the market, and can grow sufficient stuff 
to bring a fair reward even at very close margins. 
Prices are less than they were a few years ago, and 



6 



The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



there is no prospect of any important permanent 
increase. 

The person who likes the business, and who goes 
into it with a full appreciation of all the difficulties and 
discouragements, will almost surely succeed. To such 
person, it is a most attractive business, for the returns 
are quick; and it is inexpressible delight to bring forth 
a satisfactory product at the exact time when it is 
wanted. A good vegetable -garden is a perennial satis- 
faction. 

2. THE GEOGRAPHY OF VEGETABLE - GARDENING 

There is a market -gardening center or area in prox- 
imity to every large city. The market determines the 
location of the business. 

There are certain regions, however, which are so 
well adapted by nature for the business of vegetable- 
growing, that they have become market -garden centers 
despite great distance from market; but they all have 
easy access to market, either by rail or water. They 
are in proximity to trunk lines of railroad or steamship 
ports. There are two natural factors which determine 
the location of these gardening centers, — climate and 
soil. These centers are in climates which are milder 
than those in which the chief markets are located. They 
are able to grow early crops; for earliness is usually 
essential to success in market -gardening. These cen- 
ters are in sandy or light -soil areas. Such lands are 
early, easy to work, and respond quickly to fertilizers, 
tillage and other treatment. 




Fig. 1. Showing the tracking centers of Georgia. By Professor Starnes. 
Shaded areas are devoted to general trucking; dotted areas to watermelons. 



8 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

Compared with the total cultivable area, the acreage 
of the vegetable -gardening districts is small, and it is 
usually scattered. Even the extensive vegetable -grow- 
ing of the South, which the northern grower often fears 
so much, looks small when it is platted on a map. The 
accompanying maps illustrate these statements, and 
suggest that there is almost unlimited opportunity for 
geographical expansion of the business. Fig. 1 shows 
the parts of Georgia in which vegetable - gardening 
centers have been developed. The areas of oblique line 
shading (seen near the coast, at Augusta on the Savan- 
nah river, and in the extreme northwestern part) rep- 
resent the general trucking centers growing produce for 
the northern markets. The dotted areas show the melon 
regions. Fig. 2 shows the regions in Florida from 
which the vegetables are shipped (in the months speci- 
fied) to the northern markets. In Alabama, the only 
important trucking region is tributary to Mobile, 
although there are developing points along some of 
the lines of railroad. 

Vegetable -gardening areas to supply the central and 
northern markets of the Mississippi valley are indicated 
for me as follows, by P. M. Kiely, St. Louis: "The 
largest shipping point in the South for vegetables is 
Crystal Springs, Miss. Solid trains daily out of there 
are no unusual sight during the shipping season, largely 
tomatoes, however. On the same road (I. C. R. R.), 
and not far from there, are Terry, Gallman, Hazelhurst; 
further down, in Louisiana, devoted mainly to straw- 
berries, are Independence, Amite City, Hammond, Tick- 
faw, etc. However, New Orleans in spring, and, in 



Trucking Centers 



9 




Fig. 2. 
Trucking centers of 

Florida. 
By Professor Rolfs. 



HtRNANO 



t 



fact, all during the 
winter, ships far more 
than any other section 
in the South. She is 
now flooding the large 
markets, not only in 
the West, but extend- 
ing far into the East, 
embracing Buffalo, 
and, no doubt, Phila- 
delphia, New York and Boston 
to some extent, with all kinds 
of early vegetables. New. Or- 
leans, embracing many miles 
of truck patches in its vicinity, has made 
this a great industry, although the profits 
are being steadily reduced. It is favored 
to a surprising extent in the matter of 
express rates to all the principal markets, nearly all 
such goods going out by express. Most of the goods 
are packed in sugar barrels and iced, and the express 



E E 



10 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 

charges are so small that they do not cut away a large 
portion of the proceeds, as is usually the case when 
shipping long distances by express. Mobile, Ala., is 
doing a good deal in this way, to which might be 
added fifteen or twenty stations along the Mobile & 
Ohio railroad running northward in Alabama and 
Mississippi. 

^^Our market is next interested in Texas territory. 
Jacksonville and Tyler are perhaps the two leading 
points, and have been for years, although more fruits 
than vegetables are raised there. Alvin, Texas, has 
become a great strawberry section, and some area has 
also been devoted to vegetables in that and nearby 
shipping points. Vegetable -growing has also come to 
the front in a very prominent way far down on the 
Gulf coast, at Corpus Ghristi and Rockport, and a 
number of intervening points between there and Gal- 
veston. The territory between Houston and Galveston 
also discloses a great many pear orchards, vegetable 
fields and strawberry patches. In fact, the industry 
in those parts is growing very rapidly. Western Ar- 
kansas, with Van Buren as a center, will control, ship 
and distribute this coming season (1899) through one 
man, who will manage the distribution of crops for 
some twelve or fifteen different organizations in that 
section. Over 400 car loads strawberries, nearly 500 
cars cantaloupes, and at least 500 cars Irish potatoes, 
together with several hundred cars of miscellaneous 
stuff, at least 1,500 cars in all, will be shipped from 
this section. Jacksonville, Texas, is the leading dis- 
tributing and growing point in that section of the 



TnicMng Districts 



11 



state, and will do similar work for the different asso- 
ciations in that line. It will probably ship over 500 
cars tomatoes and at least 500 cars cantaloupes and 
melons, also 500 to 600 cars Irish potatoes/' 

The foregoing figures and geographical data are 
given only as illustrations of how widely scattered, far 
removed and relatively small are the truck -gardening 
centers which supply many of the great markets. It is 
no part of the purpose to show all the centers, nor 
necessarily even the most important ones. A complete 
survey of the subject from that point of view would 
require a volume. 

To facilitate statistical study, the Eleventh Census 
divided the United States into twelve great sections or 
districts : 

1. New England district: The field crops supplying Boston 
and other New England cities, and the greenhouse products sup- 
plying all the large cities of the east. 

2. New York and Philadelphia district : New York state, 
Long Island, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, which contributes 
largely to the New York and Philadelphia markets. 

3. Peninsular district : Delaware and the eastern shore 
counties of Maryland and Virginia, which supplies all the north- 
ern and some of the central west markets. 

4. Norfolk district: Eight southeastern counties of Virginia, 
and eight northeastern counties of North Carolina, which largely 
supplies northeastern and central western markets. 

5. Baltimore district: Western Maryland, West Virginia and 
that part of Virginia not in the peninsular and Norfolk districts, 
largely tributary to Baltimore, Washington and northern cities, 
as well as local canning factories. 

6. South Atlantic district : North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia and Florida, supplying northern markets, east and west. 

7. Mississippi Valley district: Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- 



12 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



ana, Tennessee and Kentucky, tributary to north central and 
northwestern cities. 

8. Southwest district: Texas, Arkansas, Missouri and Kan- 
sas, largely tributary to St. Louis and Kansas City. 

9. Central district: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wis- 
consin, Iowa and Nebraska. 

10. Northwest district: Minnesota, North Dakota and South 
Dakota. 

11. Mountain district : Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, 
Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona. 

12. Pacific Coast district : California, Oregon and Washington. 



3. THE EXTENT OF VEGETABLE - GARDENING 

There are no detailed figures of the extent of our 
vegetable -gardening industry. The best are those made 
ten years ago by the Eleventh Census and published in 
Bulletin 41 (March 19, 1891), by J. H. Hale. These 
figures show that upwards of $100,000,000 were invested 
in truck -farming, and the product for 1890, after pay- 
ing freights and commissions, amounted to $76,517,155. 
Five hundred and thirty -four thousand four hundred 
and forty acres of land were devoted to the industry, 
and this required the labor of 216,765 men, 9,254 
women, 14,874 children, and 75,866 horses and mules. 
The value of the implements employed was $8,971,206. 
Yet, great as this industry was, the greater part of it 
had developed within the last thirty years. 

It is to be expected that the Twelfth Census will 
show large gains over these figures. The acreage of 
truck crops was distributed as follows, according to 
the Census of 1890: 



statistics 



13 



Acres 

Watermelon 114,381 

Cabbage 77,094 

Pea 56,162 

Asparagus 37,970 

Sweet potato 28,621 

Melon 28,477 

Potato 28,046 

Tomato 22,802 

Spinacli 20,195 

Celery 15,381 

Bean (string or snap) 12,607 

Cucumber 4,721 

Kale 2,962 

Beet 2,420 

Miscellaneous 82,601 



534,440 



The distribution of these crops, by acres, was as 
follows : 



DiSTEICTS 


Asparagus 


Beets 


Snap or string 
beans 


Celery 


Cabbage 


Cucumbers 


Kale 


Watermelons 


Other melons 




242 

6,592 
2,640 
1,973 
2,270 
14,090 
2.323 
1,719 
5,864 


83 

864 
67 
116 

134 
766 
144 
60 
186 


65 

2,710 
615 
1,098 
585 
3,465 
1.376 
1,875 
818 


443 

4,058 
97 
130 
198 


1,586 

41,054 
3,275 
9,790 
4,165 
3,309 
2,816 
2,730 
6,103 
400 
496 
1,370 


272 

870 
313 
285 
360 
1,265 
354 
894 
108 




210 

7,320 
2,469 
2,974 
620 

55,726 
6,069 
8,098 

28,771 


645 

7,223 
1,160 
1,784 
475 
1,102 
1,343 
2,238 
12,210 


2 Xew York and 
Philadelphia 


110 

590 
878 
261 
690 
240 
170 
23 


4 Norfolk 


5 Baltimore 


6 South Atlantic .... 

7 Mississippi Valley, 


46 
313 
9,812 
150 
18 
116 


9 Central 


10 Northwest 




12 
110 

1 










390 
1,734 


18 
279 























14 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 







02 


'05 






03 




T Q rr"0 T rp C! 

U lo l-Hi-V Xiy 


02 


ish potatoe 


veet potato 


)inach 


Dmatoes 


iscellaneon 


»gregate 




& 


M 






H 


% 


< 


1 New England 


1,476 


427 




310 


305 


774 


6,838 


2 New York and 








Philadelphia ... . 


9,446 


2,361 


4,660 


3,262 


6,990 


10,615 


108,135 




Q 904 


1.295 


4,860 


2,128 


416 


2,565 


25,714 




5,858 


3,305 


3,187 


5,965 


525 


7,507 


45,375 




5,170 


2,860 


3,150 


1,980 


3,780 


11,173 


37,181 


6 South Atlantic 


12,899 


5,850 


3,133 


1,838 


2,986 


4.322 


111,441 


7 Mississippi Valley . 


5,879 


4,071 


1,160 


1,590 


3,170 


5,599 


36,180 




3,281 


3,602 


3,725 


1,378 


2,918 


3,888 


36.889 




7,555 


2,845 


4,556 


1,744 


1,362 


25,457 


107,414 


10 Northwest 


60 








60 


278 


1,083 




90 
1,224 


840 
590 






1,969 
8,454 


3,833 
14,357 


12 Pacific Coast 


190 




290 







It is to be noticed that these figures do not cover 
the entire commercial vegetable -gardening of the coun- 
try, but only that which was officially designated as 
truck -gardening (page 2). 

"Taken in its entirety, this comparatively new in- 
dustry is found to be in a healthy, prosperous condition. 
New sections are being developed from year to year 
that to a certain extent affect the prosperity of some of 
the older ones, and there is likely to be more or less 
shifting of trucking centers every few years, all upon 
advancing lines, however. New and better methods of 
culture, with the further invention of labor-saving 
machinery, must of necessity reduce the cost of pro- . 
duction. Better transportation facilities will place the 
products of these farms in cities and towns more 
promptly, in better condition and at less cost; while 
the ever -increasing population and wealth of the cities 



statistics of Seed- Crops 



15 



and towns insure a greatly increased consumption at 
satisfactory prices for first-class productions.^' 

A special enumeration of the seed -farms of the 
United States was made by J. H. Hale, under the 
auspices of the Eleventh Census bureau (Bull. Ill, 
Sept. 4, 1891). Starting with the establishment of 
Landreth's seed-farm, at Philadelphia in 1784, the 
industry had enlarged to 596 farms, with a total of 
169,851 acres devoted exclusively to the business. The 
ten years which have elapsed since the Census was taken 
have seen large developments in the seed- growing busi- 
ness. The acreage of the different seed -crops was as 
follows : 





Acres 




Acres 


Field Corn . . 


. . . 16,322 


Sweet Corn . . 


. . 15,004 


Bean 


. . . 12,905 


Cucumber . . . 


. . 10,219 


Pea 


. . . 7,971 


Muskmelon . . . 


. . 5,149 


Squash .... 


. . . 4,663 


Tomato 


. . 4,356 


Potato .... 


. . . 4,102 


Watermelon . . 


. . 3,978 


Onion .... 


. . . 3,560 


Asparagus . . . 


, , 1,437 




. . . 1,268 


Beet 


. . 919 


Turnip .... 


. . . 885 


Radish 


. . 662 


Carrot .... 


. . . 569 




. . 486X 


Parsnip .... 


. . . 374 


Pepper 


. . 365 


Onion sets . . 


352 


Eggplant . . . . 


252 


Spinach .... 


. . . 150 


Kale 


. . 105 


Pumpkin . 


. . . 105 


Flower Seeds . . 


. . 81 


Parsley .... 


. , , 75 




71 




. . . 39% 


Salsify 


. . 26 


Rhubarb . . . 


. . . 25 


Kohlrabi . . . . 


. . 19 




. . . 16 


Leek 


. . 13X 


Collards . . . 


. . . 13 


Okra 


. . 13 


Cauliflower . . 


11 




. , 2 


Corn- salad . . 


1% 




IX 



Celeriae X 



16 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



More than one-half the farms were established since 
1870, and this is an indication that the business, as a 
whole, is prospering. ''So far as reported, there were 
but two seed -farms in the country previous to 1800 
(one of these was established in Philadelphia in 1784, 
and the other at Enfield, New Hampshire, in 1795), 
only 3 in 1820, 6 in 1830, 19 in 1840, 34 in 1850, 53 in 
1860, 100 in 1870, 207 in 1880, and 200 more were 
established between 1880 and 1890, leaving 189 unac- 
counted for as to date of establishment. But, as the 
proprietors of the older seed -farms take great pride in 
this matter, it is safe to assume that 90 per cent of the 
unreported farms have come into existence within the 
last twenty years. ''Of the 596 seed-farms in the 
United States, 258, or nearly one-half, are in the North 
Atlantic division, the original center of seed produc- 
tion. These farms have an acreage of 47,813, or 
an average of 185 acres per farm, while in the 
North Central division there are 157 farms, with an 
acreage of 87,096, or an average of 555 acres per 
farm. The seed -farms of Massachusetts and Connecti- 
cut average 142 acres per farm, while those of Iowa 
and Nebraska are 695 acres in extent, and are pro- 
ducing seeds on a scale of equal magnitude to the 
other products of that section of the country. Several 
of these .seed -producing farms embrace nearly 3,000 
acres each.'^ 

"From general information obtained from the seed- 
farmers, and a study of the figures in this bulletin, it 
appears that this branch of agriculture has kept fully 
apace with the general march of national progress. 



Imports and Exports 



17 



Prior to 1850 all the seed-farms of the country were in 
the few northeastern states of the Union, Connecticut 
and New York, for more than half a century producing 
more seeds than all other states combined ; and while 
each has at present more seed-farms than any other 
state, the general westward tendency of all that per- 
tains to agriculture has stimulated seed -growing on a 
very extensive scale in the central west and on the 
Pacific coast.'' 

The publications of the United States Treasury 
Department show that our imports of vegetables are 
very important, as compared with the exports. The 
following summary figures for four years show the 
fluctuations and the footings : 



1896 



1897 



Imports Exports 



Imports Exports 



Jan. . . $130,575 $135,295 

Feb. . . 122,983 112,195 

March . 170,953 98,480 

AprU . . 210,909 102,168 

May, . . 249,998 105,258 

June . . 231,700 131,695 

July . . 121,976 123,881 

Aug. . . 157,561 163,734 

Sept. . . 148,345 185,347 

Oct.. . . 214,076 258,415 

Nov. . . 193,098 262,338 

Dec. . . 166,340 241,156 



Jan. . . $119,403 $180,112 

Feb. . . 129,293 156,698 

March . 192,200 172,237 

AprU . . 465,293 171,020 

May. . . 437,120 185,105 

June . . 227,241 237,881 

July . . 146,522 229,886 

Aug. . . 57,921 242,474 

Sept- . . 89,994 267,36 

Oct.. . . 155,138 278,821 

Nov. . . 152,184 209,42: 

Dec. . . 150,675 180, 93i 



Total . $2,118,514 $1,919,962 



Total . $2,322,984 $2,511,961 



Correct 
total. $2,118,603 

Excess of imports. . $198,641 



Correc'd 
total. $2,322,986 

Excess of exports. . $188,97'". 



B 



18 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 





xovo 






18QQ 






Imports 


Exports 




Imports 


Exports 


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119 81 8 

XX^jOXO 




Aug. . 


. 119,958 


261,163 


Aug. . 


. 145,639 


258,001 


Sept. . 


. 160,433 


376,523 


Sept. . 


. 155,756 


362,180 


Oct. . 


. 153,998 


310,912 


Oct. . 


. 179,910 


335,983 


Nov. . 


. 169,408 


307,095 


Nov. . 


. 199,220 


300,109 


Dec. . 


. 136,423 


275,473 


Dec. . 


. 238,808 


250,919 


Total . 


$2,165,126 . 


r2, 646,758 


Total . 


$2,327,659 $2,925,657 


Excess of exports 


$481,632 


Correc'd 





total to 
March, 



1900 . $2,336,131 $2,926,458 
Excess of Exports . $590,327 

The greatest import months are April, May and 
June. Following is a list of dutiable vegetables for 
the largest month in 1896-9 (May, 1898) : 





Bushels 


Value 


Beans and dried peas .... 


8,957 


$5,714 




. 229,264 


213,924 




298,944 


135,261 






37,951 


All others in their natural state 




8,879 


Prepared or preserved .... 




23,952 


Total 




$425,681 



The heaviest export months are August to Novem- 
ber. During the four years the greatest export month 
was September, 1898: 



Capital Required 



19 



Bushels Value 

Beans and peas 83,677 $130,469 

Onions 52,298 38,103 

Potatoes 105,452 80,160 

Vegetables, canned 99,464 

All others, including pickles and sauces 28,327 

Total $376,523 



4. EQUIPMENT AND CAPITAL 

The estimates for the equipment of a vegetable 
garden range from $25 to several hundred dollars an 
acre. This range represents the great variety of con- 
ditions in wl\ich market- gardening is undertaken. The 
amount of capital required to stock and to run a 
market- garden is determined primarily by four consid- 
erations : (1) the general type of business, whether 
intensive or extensive, near to market or far away; 

(2) the kinds of crops to be grown, whether requiring 
highly enriched land, much glass, or high-priced labor; 

(3) the general condition of the farm, whether it is 
in good tillage or run down, drained or undrained, 
heavy or light soil ; (4) the man. 

The best known estimate is Peter Henderson's, — 
$300 per acre. This amount is astonishingly large to 
the general farmer ; but market-gardening, when at its 
best, is an intensive business, and to half do it is to 
fail. As a rule, farmers do not put sufficient capital 
into their business to make it pay. They are afraid 
to risk anything. They work short-handed and at a 
disadvantage. A business man will buy a farm which 
will scarcely pay the taxes, put more money into it 



20 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

than it is worth, and make it pay. Some of our most 
successful farmers are men who were not raised on 
the farm. 

"The small amount of capital required to begin 
farming operations creates great misconception of what 
is necessary for commercial gardening/^ writes Peter 
Henderson,^ "for, judging from the small number of 
acres wanted for commencing a garden, many suppose 
that a few hundred dollars is all sufficient for a mar- 
ket-gardener. For want of information on this subject, 
hundreds have failed, after years of toil and privation. 
At present prices (1886) no one would be safe to start 
the business of vegetable market -gardening, in the 
manner it is carried on in the neighborhood of New 
York, with a capital of less than $300 per acre, for 
anything less than ten acres ; if on a larger scale, it 
might not require quite so much. The first season 
rarely pays more than current expenses, and the capital 
of $300 per acre is all absorbed in horses, wagons, 
glass, manures, etc.^' 

Rawson treats the question as f ollows : t "Among 
gardeners, opinions vary as to the area that an indi- 
vidual may wisely include in his plans. Many have an 
idea that five acres of land will be enough ; others put 
it at ten ; while it is known that some cultivate a 
hundred acres or more at a profit. The amount of 
capital required varies, to some extent, with the amount 
of land cultivated, but not in proportion. While it 
might require about $3,000, with the labor of three men 



* Gardening for Profit, new ed. 17. 
t Success in Market-Gardening, 68. 



Opinions on Capital Required 



21 



and two horses, to properly handle two acres, I esti- 
mate that there would be needed about $5,000, six men 
and three horses for ten acres, and that $20,000, forty 
men and twenty horses would be sufflcient for one 
hundred acres. 

These estimates of Henderson and Rawson apply to 
the most intensive market -gardening near the large 
cities. Hotbeds and manures are very large items. 
Farther away from the cities, on cheaper land and in 
the growing of general -purpose and general -season 
crops, much less capital is required. Even in the 
neighborhood of large cities, one may often start on a 
much more modest scale if he is content to work up 
slowly. Quinn remarks* that he knows personally a 
large number of well-to-do market -gardeners — men 
now worth from ten to forty thousand dollars each — 
none of whom had five hundred dollars to begin with. 
Industrious, hard-working men, these, who at first 
turned every available dollar into manure and reliable 
seeds. Greiner writes t that ^hnuch can be done on a 
very few acres of land. If land is plentiful and cheap, 
he may have a suf&ciency to support horse and cow. 
Otherwise five acres would be enough for a start. The 
capital should be sufficient to pay for the place and the 
implements and equipment needed. Among the latter is 
a small forcing -pit, or greenhouse, and a number of hot- 
bed sashes. Outside the place and horse, $400 or $500 
might answer for a small beginning. There is no need 
of going beyond the reach of one's available capital. 



Money in the Garden, 21. 
tThe Young Market-Grardener, 9. 



22 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

If the business does not prove profitable, the less money 
invested the better. If it turns out as anticipated, the 
profits from it will soon put the right man in the situ- 
ation to extend his operations. In a few years' time 
much can be done from even a very modest start." 

If one has insufficient capital to enable him to make 
the most from his place, it will be better for him to 
concentrate his energies on a part of it. The remainder 
of the place can be seeded to clover or put into other 
green- manure crops to fit it for subsequent use; or it 
may be used for the growing of forage for the horses 
or mules. Market -gardening is an intensive business. 

Burnet Landreth, who has made a study of this sub- 
ject, * makes two classes of market- gardeners — those 
who are satisfied to live on inexpensive land far 
removed from market, and to use what others would 
term an incomplete line of implements, and be satisfied 
with what nature develops in the ordinary routine of 
their business," and those who, more progressive, 
locate in the outskirts of great cities, consequently 
upon high-priced land, and have everything new in 
the way of labor-saving appliances." 

The first class of gardeners," he explains, " may be 
termed experimental farmers, men tired of the hum- 
drum rotation of farm processes and small profits, men 
looking for a paying diversification of their agricul- 
tural interests. Their expenses for appliances are not 
great, as they have already on hand the usual stock of 
farm tools, requiring only one or two seed drills, a 
small addition to their cultivating implements, and 

* Market-Gardening and Farm Notes, 5. 



Landreth on Capital Required 



23 



a few tons of fertilizers. Their laborers and teams are 
always on hand for the working of moderate areas. In 
addition to their usual expenses of the farm, they 
would not need to have a cash capital of beyond $20 
to $25 dollars per acre for the area in truck. Other 
men, in ordinary farming districts, purchasing or rent- 
ing land, especially for market -gardening, taking only 
improved land of suitable aspect, soil and situation, 
and counting in cost of building, appliances and labor, 
would require a cash capital of $80 to $100 per acre. 
For example, a beginner in market -gardening in South 
Jersey, on a five -acre patch, would need $500 to set 
up the business and run it until his shipments began to 
return him money. With the purpose of securing in- 
formation on this interesting point, the writer asked 
for estimates from market -gardeners in different locali- 
ties, and the result has been that from Florida the 
reports of the necessary capital per acre in land or its 
rental (not of labor), fertilizers, tools, implements, 
seed and all the appliances, average $95, from Texas 
$45, from Illinois $70, from the Norfolk district of 
Virginia the reports vary from $75 to $125, accord- 
ing to location, and from Long Island, New York, the 
average of estimates at the east end are $75, and at 
the west end, $150. 

Market -gardeners, living ten miles out of Phila- 
delphia, on tracts of twenty and thirty acres, devoting 
all their land and energies to growing vegetables, 
sometimes paying $40 per acre for rent, estimate that 
the necessary capital averages from $200 to $300 per 
acre, according to the amount of truck grown in hot- 



24 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



beds. These same men calculate the profits to be 
from $150 to $250 per acre. 

Very different is the case on the immediate out- 
skirts of Philadelphia, and other large cities, with the 
five- and ten -acre gardeners, employing several men to 
the acre, sometimes a larger force, where high rents, 
high wages, intense manuring and expensive forcing- 
houses combine to swell the expenses to an astonish- 
ing degree, often over $600 or $700 per acre being 
absorbed the first year, and without which ready 
capital at command the suburban cultivator would be 
driven to the wall before the close of the first season, 
as he works under heavy expenses, and he must have 
ready cash to meet them, especially if the first season 
be an unprofitable one. Of course, the $600 or $700 
per acre which may be expended the first year by a 
gardener having forcing -houses, with all the entailed 
expenses, need not be repeated the second, not more 
than one -half of it, and, indeed, it is absolutely 
necessary to reduce expenses, as the profit in truck- 
ing would not warrant such an annual cash outlay." 

FoUowing is a detailed estimate for buildings and appliances 
to operate a ten- acre farm for general gardening near one of the 
eastern cities, by E. J. Hollister, a market -gardener who has had 
much experience in the middle states and West (prices of 1898-9) : 

Equipment 

Dwelling house f 600 00 

Barn, sheds for tools, and shelter in which to prepare 

vegetables for market 300 00 

Horses and horse tools — 

2 work horses 200 00 

1 set double harness 35 00 



Capital Itemized 25 

1 lumber wagon $50 00 

1 light market -wagon 75 00 

1 2-horse plow 20 00 

1 1- horse plow 8 00 

1 harrow 12 00 

1 roller 20 00 

1 5 -tooth Planet cultivator 7 00 

1 11-tooth Planet cultivator . 8 00 

1 Planet Jr. seed drill, No. 5 12 00 

1 celery hiller 8 00 

Hand implements — 

1 hand cultivator, single wheel . 5 00 

6 garden rakes 3 00 

6 hoes 3 00 

6 planting trowels " 1 50 

200 feet of line and reel 1 50 

1 wheelbarrow 5 00 

1 spade , 1 0(3 

1 short-handled square shovel ... 1 00 

1 long-handled round-pointed shovel 1 25 

2 long-handled manure forks . 1 50 

Carpenter's tools — 

1 hand saw 2 00 

1 square 75 

1 plane 1 00 

1 set brace and bits 2 00 

1 hammer , 1 00 

1 hand ax 75 

Frames — 

30 3 X 6 hotbed sash 75 00 

600 feet pine lumber for hotbed frames 12 00 

30 wooden shutters or mats for hotbed protection ... 15 00 

1 force pump 10 00 

50 feet of hose for watering hotbeds 6 00 

Well near hotbeds 25 00 

$1,529 20 



26 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Estimated Working Cx^pital 

Seeds 50 00 

Fertilizer for 5 acres 150 00 

Man to help for 7 months 200 00 

Grand total $1,929 20 

The following estimate is made by Irving C. Smith, of J. M. 
Smith's Sons, Green Bay, Wis., well known high-class market- 
gardeners. The estimate supposes that the area is ten acres of 
land in a fair state of cultivation, and that the party desires to 
make a first-class market- garden to supply the varying needs 
of the market (prices of 1898-9): 

House for proprietor, with cellar full size $900 00 

Stable 16x24, with buggy shed attached . 200 00 

Packing house 22x44, 16 feet studding, stone wall, 

brick- lined cellar, making two stories and cellar . . 600 00 

Cooler 14 x 16 feet 150 00 

Ice house 16x20 feet, 16 feet studding . 11000 

Onion shed 16x20 -85 00 

Hay shed for berry covering 50 00 

Tool and wagon shed 75 00 

Buildings $2,170 00 



Water plant, including piping $800 00 

200 feet Ij^-inch rubber hose 75 00 

100 hotbed sash 32x72 inches 185 00 

Frames for hotbeds 60 00 

31 blankets for winter protection, 7x9 feet, $2.25 ... . 70 00 

Water plant and hotbeds $1,190 00 



1 team draft horses, 3,200 lbs $250 00 

1 horse, roadster, 1,200 lbs 125 00 

1 heavy double harness 30 00 

1 heavy single, $17 ; one buggy harness, $18 35 00 

1 heavy wagon, 3 -inch tire 45 00 

1 one -cord box for same, top section to lift off 20 00 



Equipment Itemized 27 

1 low wheel truck with plank top $25 00 

1 one-horse medium weight wagon 30 00 

Box, flat, and bolster springs for same 17 00 

1 buggy 50 00 

1 one-horse spring delivery wagon 85 00 

1 pair heavy work sheds 35 00 

1 pair light delivery sheds, $25 ; box, $8 33 00 

1 hay rack, $6 ; one dump box, $2 8 00 

Horses and vehicles $788 00 



1 steel plow, $15 ; one cutaway harrow, $25 $40 00 

1 Meeker smoothing harrow, $20 ; a tooth harrow, $7 . . 27 00 

1 plank leveler, home-made 3 00 

1 5 -tooth cultivator, $6; one 14-tooth cultivator, $3 . . . 9 00 

1 one-horse weeder, $10; one steel scraper, $5 15 00 

Horse tools $94 00 



l«New Model seeder, $6; one hand weeder, $7 $13 00 

2 Planet Jr. straddle cultivators (6-inch hoes) 6 00 

1 Gem cultivator, $4 ; one Mathew cultivator, $3 . . . . 7 00 

1 Fire-fly plow, $2; one onion puller, $3 5 00 

1 corn planter, $1 ; one berry box machine, $25 26 00 

1 knapsack sprayer, $12 ; one dry powder gun, $7 . . . . 19 00 

1 kraut cutter, $3 ; one grindstone, $3 6 00 

3 long-handled shovels, and 1 short-handled shovel ... 3 00 
3 6 -tine forks for general use ; one barley fork for berry 

covering ; one hay fork ; one 4-tine fork 4 00 

2 14-tooth steel rakes and three wooden rakes 2 00 

6 hoes, $2 ; two dozen large and small knives, $3 . . . . 5 00 

1 hammer, 1 hatchet, 1 saw, 1 square for daily use ... 3 00 

1 large wheelbarrow, $7; one dump wheelbarrow, $3 . . 10 00 

Scales, capacity 900 lbs 17 00 

Water cans and pails, $4; garden line, $1 5 00 

Repair tools, consisting of carpenter tools, punches, 

coldchisels, wrenches, etc 25 00 

Miscellaneous garden tools 20 00 

Hand tools, etc $176 00 



28 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



Hay for berry covering $30 00 

800 ID elon boxes and glass 8x10 50 00 

5,000 feet common lumber for onion sheds, celery pits, 

etc., $50; cedar posts for celery pits, $15 65 00 

100 cords of stable manure 150 00 

Seeds, $75; three months' expense for labor, $300 . . . 375 00 

Cash for sundry expenses 300 00 

Cash and sundries . . . $970 00 

Summary 

Buildings $2,170 00 

Water plant and hotbeds 1,190 00 

Horses and vehicles. 788 00 

Horse tools 94 00 

Hand tools 176 00 

Cash and sundries 970 00 

Total $5,388 00 

In the foregoing estimates I have endeavored to mention only 
those things which are necessary and will be used frequently on 
the place, saying nothing of house furniture. Many other things 
will be needed, which will be made on the place or bought as 
occasion requires. Some will object to the item of water plant 
and hoso; but if one expects to secure the best, or indeed, any 
very desirable results, it is necessary. The cost would vary 
greatly, of course, in different localities. Glass houses are not 
necessary to grow plants for spring setting, but more properly 
come under the head of winter gardening: so they are not in- 
cluded. Before the garden has run two years, there will be 
required at least another $50 in boxes, screens, home-made tools, 
etc. It is presumed that by July 1 enough goods can be sold to 
pay running expenses." 



T. Greiner, a well known market -gardener and author, of 
western New York, gives me the following estimate of cash 
required to start a market-garden of ten acres near one of the 
eastern cities : 



Equipment Itemized 



29 



"It is useless to make an estimate of cost of place including 
dwelling house and barn, as this may be anywhere between $1,000 
and $5,000, according to location. In case of scarcity of working 
capital, it might be advisable or necessary to rent rather than 
buy a place. Buying is preferable, as the owner has the benefit 
of the permanent improvements of a place. But rather than be 
short otherwise, I would be a renter. A forcing- pit or green- 
house seems to me one of the first necessities, in fact, indispen- 
sable for best success. There should be a shed for preparing and 
washing vegetables. It must contain tank, pump or other water 
supply, etc. Another necessity is a full equipment of best tools, 
including garden drill, hand wheel-hoe. Meeker harrow, etc. My 
estimate of working capital, outside of the place and buildings, 
would be something like this: 



Greenhouse, with heater and pipes $250 00 

2 horses 150 00 

Wagons and harnesses 150 00 

•Plows, harrows, cultivators, small tools ..... 100 00 

Hotbed sash, lumber, etc 60 00 

Force pump, hose, well or other water privileges . 40 00 

Seeds 50 00 

Manures 150 00 

Total . $950 00 



"If growing winter vegetables is to be added, or to be made 
a prominent feature of the business, the estimate of cost will 
have to be materially modified." 

The style of vegetable -gardening differs so much in different 
parts of the country that estimates should be secured in one^s 
own locality before embarking in the business. Some of these 
differences are evident in the contrasts of the inventories here 
presented. 

The following estimate for the neighborhood of Boston is 
made for me by W. W. Rawson. He thinks it "a very moderate 
sum with which to stock a market -garden in New England : " 



30 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Estimate for 'buildings, tools and equipments to operate a market- 
garden of ten acres near a large city in New England 

Dwelling house . $1,000 00 

Barn and outbuildings 1,000 00 

Three horses 200 00 

Harnesses 100 00 

Wagons and cart 400 00 

Tools, machines, etc 300 00 

200 hotbed sashes 220 00 

Lumber for fences, frames, shutters, etc. . . . 300 00 

200 feet of hose 25 00 

$3,545 00 

Running Expenses 

Seeds $100 00 

Manures and fertilizers 500 00 

Help, 3 men 8 months 800 00 " 

Incidentals 200 00 

$1,600 00 

$5,145 00 

A. Jefferies, Norfolk, Va., makes the following estimates of 
the necessary capital to purchase and work a ten- acre truck farm: 

"Ten acres within say about four miles of Norfolk cannot be 
counted at less than $1,000. In fact, ten acres with a comfortable 
house can not be had for less than $1,600. The cost of one good 
horse (two would be better) and spring wagon, cart, plows, culti- 
vators and harrows, $200 ; seeds, fertilizer and manure (all would 
have to be bought the first year), say $250; a cow, two pigs, and 
fifty hens, $60. From the ten acres one should sell the first year, 
$1,000 worth of farm products. The second year he should sell 
at least $2,000. The years following, this sum could be increased 
by intensive farming, such as should go with Hen acres enough,' 
up to $500 per acre, in case the brain was used to fertilize with — 
as there is no fertilizer equal to brains. We have cases in which 
$2,000 has been received from sales in one year from one acre, 



Planning a Home Garden 



31 



and many eases in which at least $1,000 worth of produce has been 
sold from an acre. The proper manipulation of good soil here by 
a ^ ten- acre -enough ' brain, will show astonishing results. Our 
truckers are covering too much ground. They are not thorough 
enough. 

-"A man can start here with very limited capital, provided he 
is made of the right material and is willing to go slow at start 
and work his way in, instead of paying his way in. In fact, the 
men who have begun with small means and good heads have made 
a better success than those who had more money. A man can 
grow forage enough on one acre to keep two cows one year." 

5. THE HOME GARDEN 

The things to be considered in the home garden 
are: (1) a sufficient product to supply the family; 
(2) ' continuous succession of crops; (3) ease and 
cheapness of cultivation; (4) maintenance of the pro- 
ductivity of the land year after year. 

The amount of product to be grown depends on 
the size of the family and its fondness for vegetables. 
An area 100x150 feet is generally sufficient to supply a 
family of five persons, not considering the winter 
supply of potatoes ; but the area must be well tilled 
and handled. Consult Fig. 3. 

The ease and efficiency of cultivation are much 
enhanced if all the crops are in long rows, to allow 
of wheel -tool tillage, either by horse or wheel -hoe. 
The old practice of growing vegetables in beds usually 
entails more labor and expense than the crop is worth ; 
and it has had the effect of driving more than one boy 
from the farm. These beds always need weeding on 
Saturdays, holidays, circus days, and the Fourth of 



32 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

July. Even if the available area is only twenty feet 
wide, the rows should run lengthwise the plot and be 
far enough apart (from one to two feet for small stuff) 
to allow of the use of the hand wheel -hoes, many of 
which are very efficient. If land is available for horse - 
tillage, none of the rows should be less than thirty 
inches apart, and for large -growing things, as late 
cabbage, four feet is better. If the rows are long, it 
may be necessary to grow two or three kinds of vege- 
tables in the same row ; and in this ciase it is 
important that vegetables requiring the same general 
treatment and similar length of season be grown 
together. For example, a row containing parsnips and 
salsify, or parsnips, salsify and. late carrots, would 
afford an ideal combination ; but a row containing 
parsnips, cabbages and lettuce would be a very faulty 
combination. One part of the area should be set aside 
for all similar crops. For example, all root -crops might 
be grown on one side of the plantation, all cabbage 
crops in the adjoining space, all tomato and eggplant 
crops in the center, all corn and other tall things on 
the opposite side. Perennial crops, as asparagus and 
rhubarb, and gardening structures, as hotbeds and 
frames, should be on the border, w^here they will not 
interfere with the plowing and tilling. 

The best results in maintaining the productiveness 
of the land are to be secured when it is possible to 
practice rotation of crops, manures and tillage. Even 
in a small area, this rotation can be practiced to a con- 
siderable extent. The area which is devoted to root- 
crops this year may be given to corn or melons next 



Plan of a Rome Garden 



33 



6 ft. 6 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft 



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ft. ft. ft. 



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34 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

year. It is particularly important to rotate if diseases 
and insects become serious on any one crop ; and in 
this case, the greatest care should be taken to select 
those crops, for the rotation, on which the parasites 
cannot thrive. For example, the club -root of the cab- 
bage and cauliflower will work on turnips. Insects 
and diseases should be starved out in the rotation. 
There are some insects which cannot be starved out in 
a small area, and it is then necessary to stop growing 
the crop for a year or two. The cabbage maggot is an 
example. If this pest obtains a good foothold in the 
home garden, cabbages and cauliflowers may be discon- 
tinued until the insect disappears; and this is often 
a cheaper solution of the difi&culty than to attempt 
to destroy the insect with the bisulfide of carbon 
treatment. If one lives on a farm, the cabbage patch 
may be placed on the farther part of the estate for 
a year or two. When the maggot has quit the area, 
the cabbage patch may be made again on the old 
ground. 

In a family garden of 100x150 feet, the rows run- 
ning the long way of the area, eight or ten feet may be 
reserved on the borders for asparagus, rhubarb, sweet 
herbs, flowers, and possibly a few berry bushes. A 
strip twenty feet wide may be reserved for vines, as 
melons, cucumbers and squashes. There remains a 
strip seventy feet wide, or space for twenty rows three 
and one -half feet apart. This area is large enough to 
allow of appreciable results in rotation ; and if it is 
judiciously managed, it should maintain high pro- 
ductiveness for a lifetime, 



Lay -out of a Rome Garden 



35 



Of the home vegetable -garden, Hunn writes as follows in 
the "Garden-Book 

"Make the vegetable -garden ample, but economize labor. 
Plant the things in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled 
easily, either by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accom- 
plish most of the labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the 
rows long, to avoid waste of time in turning and to economize 
the land. One row can be devoted to one vegetable ; or two or 
more vegetables of like requirements (as parsnips and salsify) 
may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables, as rhubarb 
and asparagus, at one side, where they will not interfere with the 
plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables should be grown on 
different parts of the area in succeeding years, thus practicing 
something like a rotation of crops. If radish or cabbage maggots 
or club -root become thoroughly established in the plantation, 
omit for a year or more the vegetables on which they live. 

"Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are 
sown. Time and labor will be saved. Rake the surface fre- 
quently to keep down weeds and to prevent the soil from baking. 
Radish seeds sown with celery or other slow- germinating seeds 
will come up quickly, breaking the crust and marking the rows. 
About the borders of the vegetable -garden is a good place for 
flowers to be grown for the decoration of the house and to give 
to friends. Along one side of the area rows of bush-fruits may 
be planted. 

"A home vegetable -garden for a family of six would require, 
exclusive of potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 feet. Begin- 
ning at one side of the garden and running the rows the short 
way (having each row 100 feet long), sowings may be made, as 
soon as the ground is in condition to work, of the following : 

Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify. 

One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato 
or set onions, the balance black- seed for summer and fall use. 

Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which 
radish may be sown to break the soil and be harvested before 
the lettuce needs the room, 



36 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which 
should be from a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 
inches to 2 feet apart. 

One hundred feet of early cauliflower ; culture same as 
for cabbage. 

Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows : 
100 feet of extra early. 
100 feet of intermediate. 
100 feet of late. 

100 feet of extra early, sown late. 
50 feet of dwarf varieties. 
If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of 
the dwarfs will maintain a supply. 

After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost 
has passed, the tender vegetables may be planted, as follows: 
Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and 
intermediate, and two rows late. 

Tomatoes, one row, plants 4 to 5 feet apart. 

One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties. 

Vines as follows : 

10 hills of cucumbers, 6x6 feet. 
20 hills of muskmelon, 6x6 feet. 
6 hills of early squash, 6x6 feet. 
10 hills of Hubbard squash, 6x6 feeto 
One hundred feet of okra. 
Twenty eggplants. 
Six large clumps of rhubarb. 
An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide. 
Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the 
space made vacant by removing early crops of early and 
intermediate peas and string beans. 

A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as 
parsley, thyme, sage, hyssop, mints." 

The "American Agriculturist" for February 17, 1900, prints 
the following sketch of a "City Man^s Garden :" 

"The plot of ground upon which is the garden was bought 



A City Man^s Garden 



37 



fifteen years ago at a cost of ten cents per square foot. It is 
located upon a commanding site in one of the fashionable 
suburbs of Boston. The garden is divided in two parts (Figs. 
4 and 5), separated by a street. On the terrace (Fig. 4) are 
planted twelve varieties of grapes, which are being trained over an 
arbor. Scattered about the place are apple, pear, plum, peach, 



Y/i/7a 



/p£^/D£NC£ 



ffOflfffJ 



j£fP ^f/> 



v>^•v^r.■:;i;.^■v>^••.•;;: 



F='or^rO£f 



Fig. 4. A city man's home garden. 



apricot, cherry, chestnut and mulberry trees, which are just 
coming into bearing and have great promise. 

"The lower garden (Fig. 5) comprises 4,650 square feet, most 
of which has been cultivated by Mr. Hauck for thirteen years, who 
says: ' It is still- my hobby, my pride. It is situated on a gentle, 
sunny slope, gaining all the moisture from the hill above. The 
soil is dark, mellow and rich, with a clay bottom, and through 



38 The Principles of Vegetable' Gardening 



years of cultivation almost free from stones and noxious weeds.' 
The tools used comprised a lot of miscellaneous garden imple- 
ments, and a Planet Jr. seed drill and a combined wheel-hoe and 
cultivator. I believe in raising as many different varieties of 
vegetables as my limited space permits. * ^ ^ It has been 
customary with me for several years to use barnyard manure and 
Bowker's fertilizers alternately, so in November (1898), after 
clearing the garden, a good layer of manure and an application of 
lime were plowed under. Every inch of ground is utilized. As 
soon as one crop disappears another one makes its appearance 
and takes its place. This enables me to always have something 
new for the table and plenty of it. 

"Water was supplied for irrigation during dry weather by 
rigging up an old rotary pump and hose and connecting with the 
cistern: Bordeaux mixture was used for spraying tomatoes, 
beans and other plants to prevent rust and blight, and a little 
Paris green was added to it for potatoes. Freedom from cut- 
worms was attributed to the use of lime and plowing in the fall, 
as an adjoining garden was badly troubled. A row of old bean 
vines was left as bait for green worms, and cabbage plants 
planted near by escaped. Squash vine borers were removed 
with a knife by cutting open the vines, lengthwise, where 
they appeared. The vine was then carefully bandaged with 
a wet rag and a fair yield obtained. The Bordeaux-Paris 
green mixture used on potatoes proved fatal to eggplants, 
but hellebore proved quite satisfactory for keeping off the 
potato bugs. 

" One hotbed 3x6 feet was used in which to start the seeds 
of early vegetables. Plantings were made in the open ground as 
soon as the weather permitted, and were continued at intervals 
throughout the season whenever there was a vacant spot in the 
garden. The following varieties of vegetables, mostly in five- and 
ten-cent packets, were planted: Pole and wax beans, beets, 
borecole, kale, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower, celery, celeriac, 
corn, cucumber, corn salad, endive, eggplant, kohlrabi, lettuce, 
muskmelon, onions, peppers, peas, salsify, radish, spinach, 
squash, tomato, turnip, rutabagas, escarole, chives, shallot, 



A City Mafias Garden 



39 




com. 



.51 



1^ 
I 



I 



I' 



I 



^^^^ ^y/VJ-^ 



40 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



parsley, sweet and Irish potatoes, and nearly a dozen different 
kinds of sweet herbs. 

"The garden was planted as shown by the cuts. In ^he 
larger garden (Fig. 5) tomatoes followed peas, turnips the wax 
beans, early lettuce for fall use took the place of Refugee beans. 
Corn salad succeeded lettuce. The spinach was followed by 
cabbage, while turnips, beets, carrots, celery and spinach gave a 
second crop in the plot occupied by Gradus peas and Emperor 
William beans. Winter radishes came after Telephone peas, 
Paris Golden celery was planted in between the hills of StowelPs 
Evergreen corn, and gave a good crop for home use without 
blanching. The plot of early corn was sown to turnips. The 
hotbed was used during the late fall and winter to store some 
of the hardy vegetables, and the latter part of October there 
were placed in it some endive, escarole, celeriac, and the remain- 
ing space was filled up by transplanting leeks, chives and parsley. 

" The value of the garden and the cost of the same are shown 
in the following table: 



Products for home use 

Products sold 

Products given away . 

Plants sold 

Plants given away . . 



$54 24 
65 75 
11 36 
3 75 
3 45 



Total 



$138 55 



Expenses 



Plowing and harrowing 

Manure 

Seeds 

Insecticides 

Labor 



$3 00 
2 00 

10 00 
1 20 

42 00 



Total 



$58 20 
$80 35" 



Profit 



Probably the general farmer, more than any other person, 
needs to be urged to have a good vegetable -garden. Professor 



Farm Gardens 



41 



Roberts gives the following advice for the "Farm Garden" in 
his "Farmstead" : 

"The farm garden should be ample and contain not only- 
enough vegetables and small fruits for the use of the family, but 
a surplus to sell or to give away. The farmer used to large areas 
is reluctant to undertake anything so small as he imagines the 
garden to be ; hence, too often he plows it and leaves the planting 
and cultivation of it to the 'women folks/ If he knew how to 
manage a garden he would find that the half -acre of land devoted to 
small fruits and vegetables could be made the most profitable and 
pleasurable part of the farm. Higher remuneration is received 
for the time spent in harvesting the products of a large, well 




Fig. 6. Plan of a farm home garden. 



kept garden, than in harvesting the cereals or milking the cows. 
It must be said, however, that there are good reasons for the 
farmer's distaste for gardening, for the gardens, as usually kiid 
out, necessitate the maximum of hand -culture and the minimum 
of horse -culture. The result of such gardens is a minimum of 
products secured by maximum of effort, and a resultant surplus 
of weeds. 

"The garden should be about four times as long as it is 
broad, unfenced when possible, near to the house, and should be, 
in miniature, a farm with the cereals, grasses and large fruits 
left out^ (Fig. 6). The side farthest from the dwelling should be 
devoted to the perennial plants, such as grapes, currants and 
other bush-fruits. Everything should be planted in straight rows, 
with spaces sufficiently wide between the rows to admit of horse- 
hoe culture. The grapes and blackberries might occupy one row, 



42 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



the raspberries and currants a second row, rhubarb, asparagus 
and like plants a third row. The spaces between these various 
fruits should be eight feet, as it is poor economy to so crowd 
vines and bushes as to force them to struggle the year through 
for plant-food and moisture. A rod or two of land, more or less, 
virtually amounts to nothing on the farm. Crowding the plants 
is only admissible in the city or village; here the plants may 
receive unusual care, and often may be irrigated at fruiting time 
from the city hydrant. The rows of ordinary vegetables may be 
thirty inches apart, except in case of such plants as onions, 
lettuce and early beets. These small, slow-growing esculents 
should be planted in double rows. Starting from the last row 
of potatoes, a thirty-inch space is measured off, a row of lettuce 
planted, and then one foot from this a row of beets or onions; 
then leave a space thirty inches wide and again plant double rows, 
if more of the sniall esculents are wanted. The larger spaces 
may be cultivated by horse -hoe and the smaller spaces by hand- 
hoe. The entire garden which is to be planted in the spring 
should be kept fertile and plowed early in the spring, leaving 
that part of it which is not designed for immediate planting 
unharrowed.. It may be necessary to replow. It certainly will 
be necessary to cultivate several times that part of the garden 
which is used for late-growing crops, such as cabbage and celery. 
As a rule, the farmer cannot afford to attempt to raise two crops 
on the same land the same year, since labor is everything and 
the use of land nothing; therefore, better prepare the ground by 
two or three plowings for the late crops than to attempt to raise 
the.m on land which has parted with much of its readily available 
plant-food in producing the early crop. Then, too, land which 
has produced one crop is likely to be deficient in moisture, while 
land that has been plowed two or three times during the summer 
and kept well harrowed will be moist and contain an abundance 
of readily available plant-food. Early in the spring, when the land 
is cold and often too moist, it is best to leave the soil rough for 
a time if it is not to be planted immediately, that it may becoma 
somewhat dry and warm. As a rule, the garden should not be 
fenced, but the chickens should be restrained by fences a part of 



A Minnesota Garden 



43 



the time ; at other times they may have free access to the garden, 
where they are often very beneficial in reducing the insect 
enemies." 

Professor Thomas Shaw writes* of a plat of ordinary ground 
in Minnesota comprising the nineteenth part of an acre, which 
for four years kept a family of six matured persons abundantly 
supplied with vegetables all the year, with the exception of 
potatoes, celery and cabbage. "In addition, much was given 
away, more especially of the early varieties, and in many in- 
stances much was thrown away. In other words, the produce 
that could thus be obtained from an acre of land similarly 
situated would abundantly supply, with nearly all the vegetables 
named, nineteen families, comprising, in all, 114 individuals." 



Minnesota Horticulturist," 1900, p. 102. 



CHAPTER II 



GLASS 

In order to protect and to forward plants, various 
glass covers are used ; and these covers, of ever}' kind 
and description, are usually spoken of as glass/' 
They comprise all the range of forcing -hills, cold- 
frames, hotbeds and glasshouses. 

Every vegetable-gardener, however small his area, 
needs glass. Thereby he is enabled to secure a crop 
in advance of its normal season. He becomes, in a meas- 
ure, independent of season or even of climate. The 
vegetable - gardener is less subject to loss from vagaries 
of frost than the fruit-grower is. He can cover his 
plants. The plants are also more amenable to treat- 
ment : he can sometimes harden them off, so that they 
withstand frost. He can grow them at such times as 
to escape the dangerous season : the fruit-grower's 
plants must, stand and take it. 

The end and aim of all glass is to forward plants 
beyond their season. This result is obtained by pro- 
tecting the plants from unpropitious weather or by 
actually forcing them. An example of the former ob- 
ject is the protection during winter of hardy plants 
which are started in the fall. The plants are kept 
alive in the cold weather by means of the covering, 

(44] 



GlassJioiises vs. Frames 



45 



but they do not grow. There are two general types 
of the forcing'^ of plants : they may be started under 
giass, and then transplanted into the open ; they may 
be gTOAvn to maturity under giass. 

1. QUANTITY AND COST OF GLASS REQUIRED 

How much giass the vegetable -gardener needs de- 
pends (1) on how intensified his operations are, (2) in 
what season he wants the major part of his crops, 
(3) the region in which he is, (4) the kinds of crops 
he grows. These factors are largely determined, in 
their turn, by the man's location with reference to 
market, and the price of labor and land. A^er}' small 
areas sometimes have sufficient giass to cover them. 

Glasshouses are increasing in number and popu- 
larity. They are driving out hotbeds for the forcing 
of winter stuff. But for general vegetable -gardening, 
the coldframe and hotbed will remain, although their 
relative importance is likely to diminish. These humble 
structures are desirable because they are cheap, because 
they allow the person quickly to change or modify his 
business (a great advantage on rented land), and 
because they can be removed when the spring forcing 

*The author should say that the word forcing is used in many senses. He 
uses it as a generic term to express the idea of making plants grow and bear 
at other times than their usual or wonted season in the given place or 
locality. Most greenhouse plants are not forced : they grow and bear in their 
normal season, and we afford them the climate to enable them to do so. Thus 
begonias are not forced, merely because they bloom in March : carnations and 
tomatoes are. The term forcing is often used in a veiw special sense by 
florists to designate the rapid driving -out of bloom from bulbs and tubers, 
as with lilies-of-the-valley and tulips. 



46 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 

is done, allowing the land to be used for other pur- 
poses. See Figs. 7 and 8. In this book, it is not 
intended to discuss permanent glass buildings, as forc- 
ing-houses. The growing of winter vegetables in the 
North is a special business, and demands a volume 
to itself.^ 

Vegetable -gardening glass is usually computed in 
sashes. A normal sash is 3 x 6 feet in surface area. 
Sashes are combined into frames. A frame is a box 
covered by four sash, — that is, an area 6x12 feet. 
For general and mixed vegetable -gardening, about 
twenty -five sash are sufficient for an acre of garden, 
considering that the plants are to be transplanted to 
the field, not matured under the sash. If one is grow- 
ing particular crops, as tomatoes, fifteen sash may be 
sufficient. For the best kind of home gardening, when 
it is desired to mature spring lettuce and radishes 
under glass as well as to transplant stuff into the 
open, from thirty -five to fifty sash may be needed 
to the acre. 

In growing plants for transplanting, a sash may be 
estimated to accommodate four hundred to five hun- 
dred cabbage and cauliflower plants, three hundred to 
four hundred tomatoes and eggplants, six hundred to 
eight hundred lettuces. When the plants are trans- 
planted in the frames, only one -third to two -thirds 
these numbers can be accommodated. If the plants are 
started very late and are not transplanted, as many as 

* There are three American books devoted exclusively to vegetable-growing 
under glass : Winkler's "Vegetable Forcing," 1896 ; Dreer's "Vegetables Under 
Glass," 1896; Bailey's "Forcing-Book," 1897. 



Cost of Sash 



49 



eight hundred tomato or cabbage plants can be grown 
under one sash. In general, one may expect to gain 
one month on the crop of hardy things like cabbages, 
and two to three weeks on tomatoes. In order to gain 
two weeks on the crop, however, it is necessary to 
gain three or four weeks on the sowing. In extra- 
good hotbeds, greater gain can be secured ; but it is 
not common. 

In figuring on the amount of glass required, the 
gardener must consider that man}^ of his plants may 
fail after they are set in the field. There are risks 
of frost, cold rains, droughts, worms. He may lose 
plants while they are still in the frames. The grower 
should start at least half more plants than he ex- 
pects to raise. The surplus may be left in the 
frames until the transplanted subjects are thoroughly 
established. 

The general estimate of cost per sash is $4, this 
amount including the cost of one -fourth of the frame 
and the covers. A well-made mortised plank frame, 
costs $4 to $5. A sash, unglazed, costs from $1 to 
$1.25. Glazing costs 75 cents. Mats and shutters cost 
from 50 cents to $1 per sash, depending upon the 
material used. 

The following sample estimate, by a gardener, illustrates the 
method of casting up one's outlay for the season's glass. It is 
an estimate for a market-garden of one acre, in which it is desired 
to grow a general line of vegetables. It supposes that half of 
the acre is to be set with plants from hotbeds. 

One-eighth acre to early cauliflower and cabbage, about 2,000 
plants ; if transplanted would require two 6 x 12 frames, from 

D 



50 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

200 to 250 plants being grown under each sash, or 1,000 plants 
from each frame. 

These frames may be used again for tomato plants for the 
same area, using about 450 plants. This will allow a sash for 
every fifty -five plants. Plants for this area may be grown in 
one frame, but would be crowded and not as stocky as if given 
more room. 

One frame should be in use at the same time for eggplants 
and peppers, two sash of each, growing fifty transplanted plants 
under each sash. 

Two frames will be required for cucumbers, melons and 
early squashes. 

If one wishes to grow extra- early lettuce, an estimate of 
sixty to seventy heads should be made to a sash. 

It is assumed that celery and late cabbages are to be started 
in seed-beds in the open. 

If spinach is grown in frames, the sash used for one of the 
late crops above may be used through the following winter. 

This makes a total of five frames, the cost, depending on 
make and material, from $1 to $5 ; twenty sash and covers, at 
$2.75, $55 ; manure at market price, calculating at least three or 
four loads per frame. This is a liberal estimate of space, and 
should allow for all ordinary loss of plants, and for discarding 
the weak and inferior ones. It supposes that most or all of the 
plants are to be transplanted once or more in the frames. Many 
gardeners have less equipment of glass. 

2. THE MAKING OF FRAMES 

In the planning of a coldframe or hotbed, the 
builder must have in mind the following objects to be 
attained : (1) a sufficient and uniform supply of heat ; 
(2) ample protection from cold; (3) facility for venti- 
lation ; (4) facilities for obtaining water ; (5) plants to 
be near the glass, and yet to have head -room for growth 



Location for Frames 



51 



of tall kinds ; (6) ease and convenience of manipula- 
tion ; (7) cheapness and durability. 

Location and exposure, — Ideally, the land on which 
frames are set should slope gently to the south or 
southeast. The area should be well protected from the 
cold and prevailing winds. A wind-break is necessary. 
This may be a pronounced rise of land to the north or 
west, a building, a wall, or a hedge. If none of these 
shelters exists, a temporary one may be made. A board 
fence 5 to 8 feet high is the common resort. A screen 
of cornstalks (Fig. 9), evergreen boughs, or other 
material, may serve the purpose, Rawson recommends 
a board fence, and says that, ^^for convenience, the 
fence or wind-break should slant back a little from the 
bottom, — about one foot; it will then form a better 
support for mats and shutters when leaned against it, 
and will be much more convenient in working around 
the beds." 

The frames should be near the residence and easy of 
access. They will need frequent attention, particularly 
in changeable weather. Frames which are far from 
the house, or which are cut off by snowdrifts or mud, 
are likely to suffer in critical times. Water supply 
should be at hand. If pipe -water cannot be had, a good 
well or cistern, with force-pump, should be provided. 
Some provision should also be made for warming the 
water in cold weather, for very cold water chills and 
delays the plants and wastes the heat of the bed. 

If land is sufficient and the garden area remains 
year by year in approximately the same place, it is 
advisable to have a permanent frameyard. The wind- 



Row the Frames are Made 



53 



breaks, water supply and other accessories can then be 
well provided. Pits can be dug for the hotbeds and 
the sides stoned or bricked. These pits retain heat 
better than surface -built beds, are less exposed to 
winds, and are permanent ; but they are more expensive 
in the beginning". The pits can also be filled in the fall 
with manure or litter, and if this is pitched out at any 
time in winter or spring, an unfrozen area is at once 
ready for the making of the hotbed. Pits should be 
tile -drained, unless the soil is very loose and the bot- 
tom is below the frost line of the surrounding unpro- 




Fig. 10. A frame. It accommodates four sash, and measures 6x12 ft. 



tected land. If many frames are employed, they should 
extend in parallel rows, six or seven feet apart, so thai 
a man walking between can water or tend two runs. 

Building the frame. — The common type of frame is 
shown in Fig. 10. It is a little over 12 feet long, is 6 
feet wide, and is covered with four 3x6 sash. It is 
sometimes made of ordinary lumber loosely nailed to- 
gether. If one expects to use coldframes or hotbeds 
every year, however, it is advisable to make the frames 
of 2 -inch stuff, well painted, and to join the parts by 
bolts or tenons, so that they may be taken apart and 



54 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



stored until needed for the next year's work. Figs. 11 
and' 12 suggest methods of making the frames so that 
they may be taken apart. The pieces for the sash to slide 
on are made of stuff three inches wide mortised into 



merely by stakes driven into the ground. This does 
very well for use late in the season and for temporary 
frames. 

The depth of the frame must be governed largely 
by the plants which it is desired to grow, and by the 
length of time they are to remain in the bed. Have 
the plants as near the glass as possible and yet give 
them room in which to grow. If the frame sets on top 
of the manure, the back side may be 12 to 15 inches 
high, and the front side 8 to 10 inches. 



A hotbed has artificial bottom heat. This heat is 
ordinarily supplied by means of fermenting manure, 
but it may be obtained from other fermenting material, 
as tan -bark or leaves, or from heat in flues or pipes. 
The hotbed is used for the very early starting of 
plants, and when the plants have outgrown the bed, 




Fig. 11. A method of making a frame. 



the frame. These 
pieces have a strip 
or mounting nailed 
along their middle 
to hold the sash 
to its place. The 
frames are some- 
times held together 



3. HOTBEDS 



56 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

or have become too thick, they may be transplanted into 
cooler hotbeds or into coldframes. There are some 
crops, however, which may be carried to full maturity 
in the hotbed itself, as radishes and lettuce. The date 
at which the hotbed may be started with safety depends 
almost entirely upon the means at command of heat- 
ing it and upon the skill of the operator. In the 
northern states, where outdoor gardening does not 
begin until the first or the last of Maj^ hotbeds are 
sometimes started as early as January ; but they are 
ordinarily delayed until earl}^ in March. 

Seating with horse manure, — The heat for hotbeds 
is commonly supplied by the fermentation of horse 
manure. It is important that the manure be uniform 
in composition and texture, that it come from highly- 
fed horses, and is practically of the same age. The 
best results are generally obtained from manure from 
livery stables, since it can be secured in large quanti- 
ties in a short space of time. As much as one- third 
or one -half of the whole material may be of litter 
or straw which has been used in the bedding. If the 
manure is very dense, it will not heat well, and it 
should have bedding, litter or well decayed leaves 
mixed with it. 

The manure is piled in a long and shallow square- 
topped pile, not more than four or five feet- high as a 
rule, and is then allowed to ferment. Better results 
are generally attained if the manure is piled under 
cover. The manure should be moist, but not wet. If 
it is dry when piled, moisten it throughout. If .it is 
very wet, it will usually remain cold until it begins 



Managing the Manure 



57 



to dry out. Sometimes the addition of a little hen 
manure to one part of the pile will start the heat- 
ing". If the weather is cold and fermentation does 
not begin, wetting a part of the pile with hot water 
may start it. 

The first fermentation is nearly always irregular ; 
that is, it begins unequally in several places in the 
pile. In order to make the fermentation uniform, the 
pile may be turned occasionally, taking care to break 
up all hard lumps and to distribute the hot manure 
throughout the mass. It is sometimes necessary to 
turn the pile five or six times before it is finally used, 
although half this number of turnings is ordinarily 
sufficient. When the pile is steaming uniformly 
throughout, it is fit to be placed in the hotbed. 
From the first piling of the manure until it is fit to 
put in the bed will be a period, ordinarily, of two 
weeks. 

There are some cases in which the material will not 
need to be turned to induce fermentation, particularly 
when the manure is from grain -fed horses, as in many 
parts of the country. Sometimes the manure heats so 
quickly and so violently that it has to be wet in order 
to prevent it from burning, althoug-h the admixture 
of straw or litter with the manure will remedy the 
trouble. Each case is a law unto itself. 

MaMng the manure Hotbed frames are some- 

times set on top of the pile of fermenting manure, as 
shown in Fig. 13. The manure should extend for 
some distance beyond the edges of the frame ; other- 
wise the frame will become too cold about the out- 



58 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 




Fig. 13. 



Hotbed ^yith. manure on top 
of the ground. 



side, and the plants will suffer. It is preferable, how- 
ever, to have a pit beneath the frame in which the 

manure is placed. The pit 
should be a foot wider 
upon either side than the 
width of the frame, and 
should be about two feet 
deep. It ma}^ be walled 
with stone or brick. It is 
very important that it have 
perfect drainage. Fig*. 14 
is a cross -section of such a hotbed pit. Upon the 
ground a layer of an inch or two of any coarse material 
is laid to keep the manure from the cold earth. Upon 
this, from twelve to thirty inches of manure is placed. 
Above the manure is a thin layer of leaf -mold or some 
porous material, which will serve as a distributor of the 
heat, and above this 
is four or five inches 
of soft garden loam, 
in which the plants 
are to be grown. In 
exposed places, it is 
always well to have 
the glass as near the 
level of the ground 

as possible. Figs. Fig. U. Section of a hotbed. 

9, 15. 

It is advisable to place the manure in the pit in 
layers, each stratum to be packed or settled down 
before another one is put in. These layers should be 




60 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

from four to eight inches in thickness. By this means 
the mass is easily made uniform in consistency. 

On the filling of hotbeds, Taft writes as follows : 
The amount of heating material that will be required 
for a hotbed will vary with the crop, as well as with 
the location and season. For zero weather there should 
be at least eighteen inches of heating material after it 
has been well packed down, and twenty -four inches will 
%e desirable in mid- winter in the northern states, while 
six or eight inches may answer when only a few 
degrees of frost are expected. For eighteen inches 
of manure the excavation should be made to a depth 
of twenty -eight inches below the level of the 
south side of the frame, and thirty -one inches below 
that of the north side. After the manure has warmed 
through for the second time it should be placed in the 
excavation, spreading it evenly and packing it down 
with the fork, but leaving it for a few days before 
tramping it. Care should be taken to have the corners 
well filled, that an even settling may be secured. After 
the manure has again warmed up, it should be thor- 
oughly tramped. The bed is then ready for the soil, 
which should be quite rich and contain a large amount 
of sand and humus, a compost of decomposed pasture 
sods with one -third their bulk of rotten manure being 
excellent for the purpose. The thickness of the soil 
should vary from five to seven inches, the greater depth 
being desirable for radishes and other root crops. 
When boxes of plants are to be placed in the beds the 
depth of soil need not be more than three inches. 
Only by experience can one learn what is the proper 



Heating with Manure 



61 



consistency or texture of good hotbed manure. That 
which has too much straw, and which will therefore 
soon part with its heat, will spring up quickly when 
the pressure of the feet is removed. Manure which 
has too little straw, and which therefore will not heat 
well or will spend its heat quickly, will pack down 
into a soggy mass underneath the feet. When the 
manure has sufficient litter, it will give a springy 
feeling to the feet as a person walks over it, but will 
not fluff up when the pressure is removed. 

The amount of manure which is to be used will 
depend (1) upon its quality, (2) the season in which 
the hotbed is made, (3) the kind of plants to be grown, 
(4) the skill of the operator in managing the bed. 
Careless watering, by means of which the manure is kept 
soaked, will stop the heat in any hotbed. The earlier 
the bed is made, the larger should be the quantity of 
manure. Hotbeds which are supposed to hold for two 
months should have about two and one -half feet of 
manure, as a rule. This is the maximum. For a light 
hotbed to be used late in the season, six or eight 
inches may be sufficient. 

Sowing the seeds. — Ordinarily the manure will heat 
very vigorously for a few days after it is placed in the 
bed. A soil thermometer should be thrust through the 
earth to the manure, and the frame kept tightly closed 
with sash and covers. When the temperature is pass- 
ing below 90°, seeds of the warm plants, like tomatoes, 
may be sown, and when it passes below 80° or 70°, the 
seeds of cooler plants may be sown. By the time the 
beds are ready for planting, the weed seeds probably 



62 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

will have germinated. Loosen and aerate the soil 
before sowing. Sow in rows four to six inches apart. 

Plants which do not transplant well, as melons and 
cucumbers, may be grown in pots, old berry boxes, 
or on inverted sods, rather than directly in the hotbed 
earth. More and more, gardeners are coming to start 
all plants in boxes or flats (Fig. 12), for the plants can 
then be carted to the field or put on the market with 
ease and with little loss. The flats can also be shifted 
from one part of the frame to another, or from bed to 
bed, as conditions may require. 

In the summer-time, after the frames are stripped, 
the old beds may be used for the growing of various 
delicate crops, as melons or half-hardy flowers. In this 
position, the plants can be protected in the fall. As 
already suggested, the pits should be cleaned in the 
fall and filled with litter, to facilitate the work of 

making the new 
bed in the winter 
or spring. 

Various modifi- 
cations of the com- 
mon type of hot- 
bed will suggest 
themselves. If the 
hotbed were high 
enough and broad 
enough to allow a man to work inside, we should have 
a forcing -house. Such a structure is shown in Fig. 16, 
upon one side of which the manure and soil are already 
in place. From two to three feet of manure should 




Fig. 16, Manure-heated forcing-house. 



Pipe -heated Frames 



63 



be used. The house may be covered with hotbed sash 
held on a rude frame of scantlings. These manure- 
heated houses are often very efficient, and are a good 
make -shift until such time as one can afford to put in 
flue or pipe heat. 

For starting plants in a small way, a glass -covered 
box in the kitchen window may answer very well. An 
incubator is useful for the germinating of seeds. 

Pipe -heated hotbeds. — Hotbeds may be heated by 
means of steam or hot water. They can be piped 
from the heater in a dwell- 
ing-house or greenhouse. 
Exhaust steam from a fac- 
tory can often be used with 
very good results. Fig. 17 
shows a hotbed with two 
pipes, in the positions 7, 7, 
below the bed. The soil is 
shown at 4. There are doors 
iu the end of the house, 
shown at 2, 2, which may be used for ventilation or 
for admitting air underneath the beds. The pipes 
should not be surrounded by earth, but should run 
through a free air space. A flue -heated or pipe- 
heated hotbed may be likened to a greenhouse beuch, 
and the arrangement of piping for the two should be 
similar. From two to four steam- or water-pipes are 
carried underneath the bed. If, however, one has 
plenty of exhaust steam, which is usually under con- 
siderable pressure, it may be carried directly through 
the soil in ordinary drain pipes. It will rarely pay 




Fig. 17. Pipe-lieated hotbed. 



64 The Principles of Vegetable Gardening 

to put in a hot water or steam heater for the express 
purpose of heating Iiotbeds, for if such an expense is 
incurred, it will be better to make a forcing -house. 

Flue-heated beds. — Hotbeds may be heated with hot 
air flues with very good results. A home-made brick 
furnace may be constructed in a pit at one end of the 
run and underneath a shed, and the smoke and hot 
air, instead of being carried directly upwards, are 
carried through a slighth' rising horizontal pipe which 
runs underneath the beds. For some distance from 
the furnace, this flue may be made of brick or unvit- 
rified sewer pipe, but stovepipe may be used for the 
greater part of the run. The chimney is ordinarily at 
the farther end of the run of beds. It should be 
high, in order to secure a good draft. If the run of 
beds is long, there should be a rise in the underljdng 
pipe of at least one foot in twenty -five. The greater 
the rise in this pipe, the more perfect will be the 
draft. If the runs are not too long, the underlying 
pipe may return underneath the beds and enter a 
chimney directly over the back end of the furnace, 
and such a chimney, being warmed from the furnace, 
will ordinarily have an excellent draft. The underly- 
ing pipe should occupy a free space or pit beneath the 
beds, and whenever it lies near to the floor of the bed 
or is very hot, it should be covered with asbestos 
cloth. 

Glazing. — The most satisfactory glass for use in 
hotbed and coldframe sash is double -thick, second- 
quality grade; and 12 -inch panes are ordinarily wide 
enough, and suffer comparatively little in breakage. 



Covers for Hotbeds 



65 



For coldframes, however, various oiled papers and 
water -proof cloths* may be used, particularly for 
plants which are started little in advance of the open- 
ing of the season. For late work, cloth is often better 
than glass, because the beds do not become so hot 
and dry. When these materials are used, it is not 
necessary to have expensive sash, but rectangular 
frames made from strips of pine seven -eighths inch 
thick and 2% inches wide, halved together at the cor- 
ners and each corner reinforced by a square carriage- 
corner, such as is used by carriage -makers to secure 
the corners of buggy boxes. These corners can be 
bought by the pound at hardware stores. The glass 
is bedded in putty. No putty should be run above 
the panes, because it will soon be loosened by the 
freezing of the water which collects under it. The 
panes should be lapped, not butted. 

Hotbed covers. — Some protection, other than the 
glass, must be given to early hotbeds. They need 
covering on every cold night, and sometimes during 

* There are water-proof hotbed cloths in the market. Or one may make 
his own by using one of the following formulas : 

1. Use a sash without bars, and stretch wires or strings across it to serve 
as a rest for the paper. Procure stout but thin manila wrapping-paper, and 
paste it firmly on the sash with fresh flour paste. Dry in a warm place and 
then wipe the paper with a damp sponge to cause it to stretch evenly. Dry 
again and then apply boiled linseed oil to both sides of the paper, and dry 
again in a warm place. 

2. Saturate cloth or tough, thin manila paper with pure raw linseed oil, 

3. Dissolve 1% pounds white soap in 1 quart water ; in another quart dis- 
solve 1/^ ounces gum arable and 5 ounces glue. Mix the two liquids, warm, 
and soak the paper, hanging it up to dry. Used mostly for paper. 

4. Three pints pale linseed oil ; 1 ounce sugar of lead ; 4 ounces white 
rosin. Grind and mix the sugar of lead in a little oil, then add the other 
materials and heat in an iron kettle. Apply hot with a brush. Used for 
muslin. 



E 



66 



The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



the entire day in very severe weather. Very good ma- 
terial for covering the sash is matting, such as is 
used for carpeting floors. Old pieces of carpet may 
also be used. Burlaps makes excellent cover. It may 
be doubled ; and it may have straw, shavings or wool 
quilted in it. Various hotbed mattings are sold by 
dealers in gardeners' supplies. 

Gardeners often make mats of rye straw. Such 
mats are thick and serviceable, and if they are kept 
dry they will last for years. They are bulky to store 



or marline twine is used for 

Fig. 18. Making straw-mats. 

securing the strands of straw. 
It is customary to use six runs of this warp. Twelve 
spools of string are provided, six hanging on either 
side. Some persons wind the cord on two twenty- 
penny nails, as shown in the figure, these nails being 
held together at one end by wire which is secured in 
notches filed into them. The other ends of the nails 
are free, and allow the string to be caught between 
them, thus preventing the balls from unwinding as 
they hang from the frame. Two wisps of straight rye 
straw are secured and laid upon the frame, with the 
butt ends outward and the heads overlapping. Two 




and heavy to handle, however, 
and they are not used as much 
as formerly. There are various 
methods of making these straw 
mats, but Fig. 18 illustrates one 
of the best. A frame is made 
after the manner of a saw-horse, 
with a double top, and tarred 



Coldframes 



67 



opposite spools are then brought up and a hard knot 
is tied at each point. The projecting butts of the 
straw are then cut of£ with a hatchet, and the mat is 
allowed to drop through to receive the next pair of 
wisps. In making these mats, it is essential that the 
rye contains no ripe grain ; otherwise it attracts the 
mice. It is best to grow rye for this especial purpose, 
and to cut it before the grain is in the milk, so that 
the straw does not need to be threshed. 

In addition to these coverings of straw or matting, 
it is sometimes necessary to provide board shutters to 
protect the beds, particularly if the plants are started 
very early. These shutters are made of half-inch or 
five -eighths inch pine lumber, and are the same size 
as the sash — 3x6 feet. They are used above the 
matting to keep it dry and to prevent it from blowing 
off. In some cases they are used without matting. 

4. COLDFRAMES AND FORCING -HILLS 

A coldframe has no bottom heat, except that which 
it receives from the sun : otherwise it is like a hot- 
bed. There are three general purposes for which a 
coldframe is used : (1) for the starting of plants early 
in spring ; (2) for receiving partially hardened plants 
which have been started earlier in hotbeds and forcing - 
houses ; (3) for wintering young cabbages, lettuce and 
other hardy plants which are sown in the fall. 

Coldframes are ordinarily placed near the buildings, 
and the plants are transplanted into the field when 
settled weather comes. Sometimes, however, they are 



68 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



made directly in the field where the plants are to 
remain, and the frames, and not the plants, are re- 
moved. When nsed for this latter pnrpose, the frames 
are made very cheap by running two rows of parallel 
planks through the field at a distance of six feet 
apart. The plank on the north is ordinarily 10 to 
12 inches wide, and that on the south 8 to 10 inches. 
These planks are held in place by stakes, and the 




Fig. 19. A span-roof coldframe, or cold forcing-house. 



sash are laid across them. Seeds of radishes, beets, 
lettuce, and the like, are then sown beneath the sash, 
and when settled weather arrives the sash and planks 
are removed and the plants are growing naturally in 
the field. Half-hardy plants, like those mentioned, 
may be started two or three weeks in advance of the 
normal season by this means. 

When the heat is spent from hotbeds, they become 
coldframes. They can then be used, if empty, for the 
starting of late plants ; or the plants may be hardened- 



Forcing -hills 



69 



off in them as they cool, thus, perhaps, obviating the 
necessity of transplanting to other frames. 

Span-roof coldframes (Fig. 19) are very useful, as 
they allow of better and more uniform conditions for 
the growing of plants than the ordinary frame. They 
are covered with hotbed sash laid on a framework, 
and the sashes pulled down from the top for venti- 
lation. They are essentially forcing -houses, however, 
and the discussion of them is foreign to the purpose 
of this volume. 

Forcing-Mils. — A forcing- 
hill is an arrangement by 
means of which a single plant 
or a single hill of plants may 
be forced where it perma- 
nently stands. It is a small 
coldframe. This type of forc- 
ing may be applied to per- 
ennial plants, as rhubarb and 
asparagus, or to annuals, as 
melons and cucumbers. Fig. 20 illustrates a common 
method of hastening the growth of rhubarb in the 
spring. A box made with four removable sides, two of 
which are shown in end section in the figure, is placed 
around the plant in the fall. The inside of the box 
is filled with straw or litter, and the outside is banked 
thoroughly with any refuse, to prevent the ground from 
freezing. When it is desired to start the plants, the 
covering is removed from both the inside and outside 
of the box, and hot manure is piled around the box 
to its top. If the weather is still cold, dry, light leaves 




70 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



or straw may be placed inside the box, or a pane or sash 
of glass may be placed on top of the box, to answer 
the purpose of a coldframe. Ehubarb, asparagus, sea- 
kale and similar plants may be advanced from two to 
four weeks by means of this method of forcing. Some 
gardeners use old barrels or half -barrels in place of the 
box. The box, however, is better and handier, and the 
sides can be stored for future use. 

Plants wdiich require a long season in which to 
mature, and which do not transplant readily, as melons 
and cucumbers, may be planted in forcing-hills in the 
field. One of these hills is shown in Fig. 21. The 




Fig. 21. Forcing-hill. 



frame or mold is shown at the left. This mold is a 
box with flaring sides and no top or bottom, and pro- 
vided with a handle. This frame is placed with the 
small end down at the point where the seeds are to 
be planted, and the earth is hilled up about it and 
firmly packed with the feet. The mold is then with- 
drawn, and a pane of glass is laid on the top of 
the mDund to concentrate the sun^s rays, and to pre- 
vent the bank from washing down with the rains. A 
clod of earth or a stone maj' be placed on the pane 
to hold it down. This type of forcing -hill is not 
much used, because the bank of earth is likely to wash 



Hand -boxes 



71 



away, and heavy rain occurring" when the glass is off 
will fill the hill w^ith water and drown the plant. 
However, it can be used to very good advantage in 
cases in which the gardener can give it close attention. 

A forcing -hill is sometimes made by digging a hole 
in the ground and planting the seeds in the bottom 
of it, placing the pane of glass upon a slight ridge or 
mound which is made on the surface of the ground. 
This method is less desirable than the other, because 
the seeds are placed in the poorest and coldest soil, and 
the hole is yerj likely 
to fill with water in the 
earh^ days of spring. 

An excellent type 
of forcing -hill is made 
by the use of the hand-, 
box, as shown in Fig. 
22. This is a rectan- 
gular box, without top 

, . . ■ Fig. 22. Hand-box. 

or bottom, and a pane 

of glass is slipped into a groove at the top. The earth 
is banked slightly about the box, in order to hold it 
against winds and to prevent the water from running 
into it. If these boxes are made of good lumber and 
painted, they will last for many years. Any size of 
glass may be used, but a 10 x 12 pane is as good as 
any for general purposes. 

After the plants are thoroughly established in these 
forcing -hills, and the w^eather is settled, the protection 
is wholly removed, and the plants grow normally in 
the open. Forcing -hills are not well adapted to large- 




72 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

area work, because they require too much time in the 
tending, being scattered over much territory. Neither 
do they have much advantage of protection from 
windbreaks, and, containing a less body of air, they 
do not give as early results as well-made coldframes. 

5. THE MANAGEMENT OF FRAMES 

Only by experience can one learn how to manage a 
hotbed. There are a few principles and cautions, how- 
ever, which may enable one to arrive at this knowledge 
sooner and with less loss than by blind experience 
alone. The things to be sought, so far as the plants 
are concerned, are specimens (1) which are ready at 
the required season, (2) which are stocky, and (3) 
which have made a continuous healthy growth. The 
things to avoid are (1) the chilling of the plants; 
(2) too hot and close atmosphere, which tends to make 
the plants soft; (3) crowding of the plants, which 
tends to make them weak and spindling ; (4) growing 
plants too far from the light, which also tends to make 
them soft and weak; (5) the scalding of the plants 
by the sun, an injury which is very likely to occur 
when the sun comes out after a long spell'' of dark 
or cold weather; (6) the wilting of the plants, due to 
too great heat and too little moisture. 

Translated into the actual management of a hotbed, 
these objects may be grouped as follows : (1) main- 
taining the heat; (2) watering; (3) ventilating; (4) 
hardening - off ; (5) transplanting. Above all things, 
the plant should be stocky when it is to be put 



Maintaining the Heat 



73 



in the field. A stocky plant is one which is com- 
paratively short and thick, is able to stand alone, and 
which has a normal bright green color throughout. 
Plants which are not stocky are said to be ^Ueggy'^ or 
drawn,'' since their general tendency is to grow too 
long and weak for their bulk. A stocky plant, however, 
may be stunted. The ideal plant is one which is both 
stocky and vigorous. 

The maintenance of the heat in the ordinary hotbed 
depends primarily on the quality and the amount 
of manure ; but one can do something by subsequent 
management to maintain it. Heat will ordinarily fail 
sooner if the hotbed is above the ground and much 
exposed to winds. It may also be lessened by careless 
watering, particularly by soaking the manure. As 
already said (page 57), manure which is too heavy and 
concentrated may heat violently, and wetting it may 
tend to cool it to the point at which plants can grow; 
but a better way is to mix leaves or other litter with 
the manure, thereby preventing too rapid fermenta- 
tion. Not only should the heat from the fermenting 
manure be maintained, but care should be taken to 
prevent too much of the heat from escaping. This is 
an important caution in very cold nights and windy 
weather, at which time the frame should be protected 
by mats or other covering. A cold and wet soil also 
tends to lessen the heat in the hotbed. For this 
reason, hotbeds should always be placed in a sandy or 
gravelly place, if possible ; or if not, the greatest 
precaution should be taken to insure perfect drainage. 
Watering should be done with caution. Careless 



74 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

watering tends (1) to pack or to puddle the soil, (2) 
to chill the plants, and (3) to soak the manure and to 
check its fermentation. If watering is done from a 
hose, the danger of packing the soil is greater than 
when a watering pot is used, since the water is applied 
with greater force. Hotbed soils should be rather 
loose and fibrous in order to prevent the puddling. As 
compared with outdoor or field conditions, the amount 
of water applied to a hotbed is usually excessive, and 
the physical texture of the soil is likely to be injured 
unless one exercises considerable care. It is better, as 
a rule, not to water hotbeds towards night or when the 
temperature is falling, for the application of water and 
the subsequent evaporation tend to still further cool 
the bed. It is particularly inadvisable to allow the 
plants to go into the night with wet foliage. This 
caution applies with especial force to cucumbers, 
melons and other "warm'' plants; and also to the 
early season, when it is necessary to keep the frame 
close. It is better, as a rule, to water in the morning, 
or at least when there is still enough sun heat left to 
warm the soil before nightfall. It is well also to avoid 
ice-cold water, for the application of water at such 
temperature is a decided check to plants. The water 
should have a temperature of 60^ to 65°, if possible, 
particularly for warm -growing plants and early in the 
season. Avoid dribbling or merely wetting the surface 
of the soil. The soil should be wet thoroughly at each 
watering, and not wet again until the plants need it ; 
but, on the other hand, one should avoid drenching the 
soil. 



Ventilating 



75 




Fig. 23. Ventilating the hotbed. 



Ventilation is important, (1) to dry the air, (2) 
to aid in controlling the temperature. Plants which are 
kept close and wet tend to grow too tall and soft, and 
to lack in stockiness. On pleasant and sunny days, 
ventilation should be given by 
raising the sash, resting it on 
a notched block, (Fig. 23), 
or by sliding down the sash. 
The general tendency with be- 
ginners is to ventilate too little 
rather than too much. One is 
likely to judge the temperature 
by the wind and air about his 
face and ears, whereas the hot- 
bed, being on the surface of 
the ground, is considerably 

warmer and more protected. Whenever the air in the 
bed is so moist that drops of water collect on the panes, 
ventilation should be given if the temperature will per- 
mit. In fact, it is the aim of good gardeners not to 
have the atmosphere very moist when the temperature 
is low and ventilation cannot be given. As the plants 
grow, more and more ventilation should be given until 
finally in sunny days the sash can be stripped from the 
frames. In this way the plants become accustomed to 
the lower temperature and to normal conditions of the 
atmosphere ; they become hardened. Careful atten- 
tion to ventilation is one of the important means of 
making plants stocky. 

Hardening -off is also promoted by giving the plants 
plenty of room. As soon as they begin to crowd, some 



76 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

of the plants may be pulled out, or better, all the 
plants may be transplanted. At the transplanting, it 
may be well to transfer the plants to a somewhat 
cooler and more airy frame. With celery and some 
other plants, it is often allowable to shear the tops, 
cutting off a fourth or a fifth of the length of the 
plant in order to make it branch and thicken. Plants 
which are grown in pots, berry boxes, oyster buckets, 
and the like, are likely to be more stocky than those 
which are grown directly in the soil of the hotbed, 
since they have more room; and such plants may not 
need transplanting. If it is found that the heat is 
failing, it will be necessary to harden -off the plants 
more rapidly- Some plants, of which lettuce, cabbage 
and cauliflower are the common examples, can be so 
completely hardened -off as to be able to withstand 
considerable frost ; and in this toughened condition 
they may be carried over two or three weeks of cold 
weather before it is safe to transplant them into the 
open. The general tendency is to do little transplant- 
ing in the frames because of the high price of labor, 
but transplanting is always advantageous to the plants, 
particularly if they are started very early. 

In very cold weather, it is sometimes necessary to 
keep the mats and shutters on the hotbeds for two or 
three days at a time. During this time, when the 
plants are in comparative darkness, they are likely to 
become somewhat soft and tender, and great care must 
be exercised that they are not scalded when the covers 
are taken off and the sun comes out. The stockier 
and the tougher the plants are grown, the less is the 



Row Early to Sow 



77 



danger of sun - scalding* ; but after a long period of 
cloudy weather, this danger is very great and the 
operator must watch his beds closely. 

Hotbeds are more difficult to manage, as a rule, 
than forcing -houses, since the operator can be inside 
the forcing -house whatever the weather may be. In 
very cold and windy weather, hotbeds cannot be 
opened. The operator works from the outside rather 
than from the inside. In many of the plains regions, 
the strong winds make it difficult to handle the hot- 
bed sash. In such case, the cheap forcing -house 
structure made of frames and heated either with fer- 
menting manure or with pipes is more advantageous 
(page 62). 

Beginners are likely to start a hotbed too soon. It 
must be remembered that the age of the plant does 
not count for so much as its stockiness and vigor. 
If, therefore, the hotbed is started so early that the 
plants have to be slowed up'^ and stunted in order to 
hold them until the field is ready, very little is 
gained. In the northern states, it is usually thought 
that cabbages and cauliflower may be started with 
profit about six weeks before the field is expected to 
be ready ; tomatoes, six to seven weeks ; onions and 
beets, four to six weeks. 

Wintering fall-sown plants. — It has been said 
(page 67) that one use of coldframes is to carry 
fall-sown plants over the winter and to have them 
ready for transplanting into the field very early in 
the spring. The plants are not to grow during winter: 
they are only protected. Having become inured to 



78 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

cold, they may be set in the field the minute the soil is 
fit. Hard}^ plants ( lettuce, cabbage, kale, cauliflower) 
are used for this purpose. Seeds are sown in late fall, 
and when the plants have grown four or five wrecks 
they are ready to be transplanted into the frames. 
It is not well that they make much growth in bulk 
after transplanting to the frames ; but they should se- 
cure a good root -hold before freezing weather comes. 
Some persons sow the seeds directly in the frames, but 
better results are usually attained if the" plants are 
made extra stocky by transplanting. All soft, weak 
and imperfect plants are likely to be destroyed by the 
winter. Plants which are very young and flabby usu- 
ally perish. Those which are too old tend to run to 
seed when spring weather comes. Only by experience 
can one determine the proper age at w^hich the plants 
should go into the winter ; and this experience is 
likely to vary with different varieties of the same vege- 
tables. A plant which has begun to thicken up and 
to show signs of a tendency to form a head will nearly 
always run to seed in the spring, for it seems not to 
have the power to resume active vegetative growth 
after its long check. Cabbage plants with three or 
four true leaves should be able to pass the winter and 
to give satisfactory results the following year. The 
novice should undertake these experiments in a small 
way, particularly in the North, where the practice is 
not common and the results are precarious. 

Keep the frames uncovered until stiff freezing 
weather comes. Then use sash and covers. Gradually 
the plants and soil may freeze ; but exercise care that 



Wintering Fa II - soivn Plants 



79 



the bright sun does not strike frozen plants and thaw 
them out quickly. Give freel}^ of ventilation. Strip 
the frames on all fine days. If the ground is frozen, the 
plants may stand several days under a cover of snow 
on the sash ; but if the ground is soft, so that some 
root action goes on, the plants should not be kept 
close and dark for more than a day or two. 

In the middle states, the plants are sometimes 
carried over winter without frames, if they are in a 
protected place. As far south as Norfolk, cabbage are 
planted in the field in late fall. Check all winter 
growth, prevent sudden thawing, avoid sun -scalding. 



CHAPTER III 



THE SOIL AND ITS TREATMENT 

Ma-rket, climate, soil, — these are the leading factors 
in determining the location of a market- garden. 

A good market - gardening soil is one which is 
quick.'' It warms up early in spring; it comes 
quickly into workable condition after a rain ; it is easy 
to keep in good tilth ; it responds quickly to fertilizing 
materials. Its physical condition is more important 
than its original richness in plant-food : the latter can 
be added. That is, in the determination of a soil for 
market-gardening purposes, two coordinate factors are 
to be considered, — the texture or physical make-up, 
and the content of plant-food. 

Nearly all general market- gardens are on sandy 
loams. There are a few crops, of which onions and 
celery are examples, which demand particular types of 
soils for best results ; but if one has a deep and uni- 
form sandy soil, he can make an ideal garden of it, 
other things being equal. If the land is well drained, 
and if rainfall is sufficient, this sandj^ land can be 
made immensely productive by a combination of three 
things, — good tillage, the incorporation of plant-fiber 
or humus, the direct addition of plant-food. When 
thus ameliorated, it becomes a sandy loam. 

(80) 



Soils 



81 



The soil to avoid is hard clay. It is cold and late. 
Plants start slowly in it. It cannot be worked when 
either wet or dry ; and the period in which it can be 
tilled is so short that much labor and equipment are 
required to enable one to handle it quickly and effi- 
ciently. Clay is excellent for some fruits (particularly 
pears and plums), and for some general farm crops; 
but it is not the land for vegetable-growing. How- 
ever, a friable clay loam may be excellent : this loamy 
condition may be obtained from hard clay soil by judi- 
cious tillage, the incorporation of humus, the addition 
of amendments in special cases, and by underdraining. 
Clay loams are good lands for main-season crops of 
many kinds, as cabbage, pea, bean. 

Reclaimed swamps usually afford excellent soil for 
vegetables, if the area can be thoroughly well drained, 
so that the land is early, and if the vegetable 
matter or peat is well decomposed and comminuted. 
Soils which are nearly all muck have little body, and 
suffer from drought ; these soils are mostly the deposit 
of peat and moss bogs. The fine loams which have 
accumulated in beds of shallow ponds or lakes are 
usually ideal vegetable -garden lands, providing the 
area is not too frosty. 

When the object in vegetable -gardening is to grow very 
early crops, it is important to have quick-acting land. Such a 
soil contains a large amount of sand in its composition. * ^ 
When the intention is to raise cabbages, potatoes, turnips, beets, 
etc., for marketing in the autumn and for crops that require 
but a short time to mature or that prefer a cool location, a good 
clayey loam is generally, the best. — S. B. Green, Vegetable- Gar- 
dening ^ Second Ed.y 8, 

F 



82 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



The best soils are of a friable and loamy texture ; the worst, 
those of a very light sandy or of a stiff clayey description. — 
Bobert Buist, The Family Kitchen Gardener ^ 5, 

The soil for growing vegetables and seeds should be as 
near as possible a deep loam; it maybe more or less sandy, but 
avoid clay, or anything heavier than a clay loam. — Francis Brill, 
Farm- Gardening and Seed -Growing, New Ed., 11. 

Earth of a consistence that will hold water the longest 
without becoming hard when dry, is of all others, the best adapted 
for raising the generality of plants in the greatest perfection. 
This last described soil is called loam, and is a medium earth, 
between the extremes of clay and sand. — Bridgeman, Young 
Gardener^ s Assistant, Seventh Ed., 10. 

Grarden vegetables, as a rule, will thrive best, other things 
being equal, on a deep, sandy loam, with an open sub-soil. 
Almost any character of soil, with the exception of pure clay, 
can be brought up to a high state of fertility by adopting the 
proper methods. — P. T. Quinn, Money in the Garden, 14. 

The soil should be a warm, sandy loam. — T. Greiner, Row 
to Make the Garden Pay, Second Ed., 30. 

Sandy loam, with a sandy or gravelly sub-soil sliouia De 
selected. Such land is far better than soils resting on clay, not 
only becau^*:^ its nature is warmer, but because it is naturally 
well drair A clay sub -soil, at least until deep drains have 
been sunk and operated a considerable time, will render any 
land cold, as it retains the moisture. — W. W. Rawson, Success in 
Market- Gardening J 12, 

If in the selection of the land, one is confined to a single 
soil, he should select one consisting of a mixture of organic and 
inorganic matter; a light, deep, sandy loam, with plenty of 
humus or vegetable matter. — A. Oemler, Truck- Farming at tlie 
South, 10. 

The soil may be anything but brick clay, theoretically a 
light, sandy loam is best, but here, again, astonishing results are 
often obtained on forbidding soils; for instance, on sticky red 
clays and sands, the latter seemingly no better than those of 



Soils 



83 



the seashore. — Burnet Landrethj Market- Gardening and Farm 
Notes, 18. 

The characters already cited point clearly to what is com- 
nionly designated as a rather light soil as best for vegetable 
growing. — E. J. Wichson, The California Vegetables y 43. 

The soil which is best suited for the production of vegeta- 
bles is what is termed a rich loam, fully a foot in depth, with a 
sandy or gravelly sub -soil, through which the surplus water 
readily filters. — D. W. Beadle, Canadian Fruit, Flower and 
Kitchen Gardener, 192. 

Quel sol convient au jardin? Je reponds que partout ou il 
y a de la terre vegetale, Petablissement d'un jardin y est 
possible. II n'en est point du jardin comme de la f erme ; 
celle-ci, en raison sourtout de son etendue, conservera toujours 
la qualite de son sol primitif, tandis que pour le jardin, il est 
toujours assez facile par des amendments, des engrais et divers 
procedes de culture, d'alterer ou de changer sa qualite suivant 
le besoin. — Provancher, Le Verger, 169 {Quebec.) 

Vegetable-gardening land should be rich. It should 
contain much plant -food material ; and this material 
should be quickly available, for on its availability 
depends the earliness or quickness of ^he land, 
to a great extent. The plant should grow Ickly and 
continuously. Slow-growing and intermittent -grow- 
ing vegetables may not only fail to reach the market 
or the table at the desired time, but they are usually 
poor in quality. In order to secure this quick growth, 
the land should be very thoroughly prepared before 
the plants are put on it ; and in most cases, an appli- 
cation of concentrated (or commercial) fertilizer will 
help. 

It is usually more profitable to secure land which 
is already in productive condition than to take that of 



84 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

inferior quality and to improve it. This is true of all 
intensive farming ; for intensive farming wants quick, 
positive, and large results. The closer one is to his 
market, the smaller his area, and the greater the variety 
of crops which he is to grow, the greater is the neces- 
sity of securing land in prime condition. 

But if one has small capital, he may not be able to 
secure such land. In such case, he takes land which 
is either naturally inferior or which is run down. It 
is a favorite advice of the market- gardening writers 
to avoid run-down lands. It is said to be imprac- 
ticable to attempt to reclaim them. This kind of 
advice has been over -emphasized. If run-out land 
lies right and is naturally well drained, it can be 
brought into profitable condition, in the great majority 
of cases, with comparatively little trouble and expense, 
if only the person goes at it right. It requires time 
and patience. The first thing to do is to till well and 
to add fiber (preferably by means of clover). The 
common notion that commercial fertilizer is the first 
resort in such instances is in most cases a grievous 
error. The fertilizer is for the purpose of adding 
plant-food, not of ameliorating the soil. If market- 
gardening is attempted on run-down land, the gardener 
should select the best part of the area for his more 
intensive efforts, giving it what manure he has and 
bestowing upon it his best efforts in tillage. The 
remainder of the place can then be slowly brought 
into condition by cover -cropping, rotation, and other 
cheaper means. Four or five years, at the outside, 
should usually suffice to bring the average worn-out 



Drainage 



85 



land into good condition, without great expenditure of 
capital. The run-down" character of a farm is usually 
more a matter of dilapidated fences and buildings, weedy 
fields and slovenly appearance, than of exhaustion of 
plant -food in the soil. 

1. THE AMELIORATION OF THE LAND 

Land that is quick" is in good physical condition. 
It is finely pulverized, mealy," mellow, deep. It is 
almost useless to apply expensive plant -food to poorly 
tilled and intractable land. The first efforts, therefore, 
must be given to drainage tillage, the addition of fiber, 
rotation. 

Drainage. — The best drainage is that which is pro- 
vided by nature ; that is, land which is naturally well 
drained comes into condition more quickly, as a rule, 
and is in more continuous good tilth than that which 
it is necessary to drain artificially. However, the very 
best results may be secured by a good system of tile- 
drainage. Underdraining is practiced for two pur- 
poses — to carry off the superfluous water, and to im- 
prove the physical texture of the soil. All low and 
boggy lands need to be drained for the first purpose. 
Very stiff clay lands, which are normally dry and 
hard, usually can be much improved in their physical 
texture by a good system of underdrains. The philos- 
ophy of this is simple. If water stands long in clay 
lands, it tends to cement or to puddle the soil. If the 
superfluous water is quickly taken off, however, this 
cementing or puddling does not take place. The soil 



86 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 



is thereby looser or more friable. This friable condi- 
tion of the soil enables it to hold more moisture 
than when it is hard and brick -like. It therefore 
results that draining to remove the superfluous water 
puts the soil in condition to hold more capillary mois- 
ture in its own tissues, and improves it for agricultural 
purposes. For vegetable -gardening purposes, particu- 
larly^ if quickest results are desired, it is necessary to 
underdrain hard clay lands, even if they are not wet. 
It makes them workable early in the spring after rains, 
and enables the plants to obtain a quicker foothold. 
These same lands might be used for orchards, how- 
ever, without underdraining, and they might also be 
very productive of some general farm crops ; but in 
such cases the crops may occupy- the land for a term 
of years, and very quick and early results are not 
essential. 

For temporary purposes, surface drains may be 
used, or the land may be ridged so that the surface 
water is taken off in the dead -furrows. This surface 
drainage, however, results only in carrying off super- 
fluous water and does not have the effect of amelio- 
rating the land in the way in which underdrains do. 

In nearly all cases, it is better and cheaper in the 
end to use tile underdrains. Board drains are some- 
times used, but they are not so efficient nor so per- 
manent ; and in the East they are often more expen- 
sive to begin with than the tile drains are. In stony 
countries, excellent drains may be made by partially 
filling the ditch with stones, particularly if flat stones 
are to be had so that a conduit can be laid in the 



Brainagf' 



87 



bottom. Such drains not only give the advantages 
of underdrainage, but also afford a means of dispos- 
ing of superfluous stone. If they have a good fall, 
and care is exercised not to fill the spaces between 
the stones with earth, they may be nearly or quite 
as efficient as tile drains. The deeper the drains, 
the deeper will be the ameliorating effect on the 
sod and the greater the area which they drain. As a 
matter of practice, however, it is found, that four 
feet is usually the maximum depth, and about three 
feet the minimum. Wet lands, or very hard clay 
lands, should have drains at a distance of not more 
than two or three rods, if the lands are to be put in 
the very best condition for market -gardening purposes. 
It may be advisable, however, to use such lands for 
the later, cheaper and general -purpose crops rather 
than for the very early ones if the gardener has other 
land which can be used for the crops which are de- 
sired for the early market. ' For detailed advice on 
drainage, the readers should consult special books on 
the subject. 

Tillage. — At the present time the great emphasis in 
agricultural practice is placed on tillage. We have 
passed through that era in our development in which 
we have looked to recipes and special practices for the 
improving of the soil. The fundamental thing is to 
till : the later and incidental thing is to fertilize the 
land. 

We till (1) to prepare the soil to receive the crop, 
and (2) to maintain the soil in good condition for the 
growth of the crop. To prepare the soil for the crop, 



88 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

the land should be loosened and pulverized as deep as 
ordinary roots go. To maintain the soil in ideal con- 
dition, the surface should be tilled or stirred as often 
as it becomes crusted or compacted. It is essential 
that every farmer keep in mind the differences between 
preparation -tillage and maintenance -tillage, for these 
ideas are associated with two classes of effort. Culti- 
vating should be thought of as maintenance -tillage, not 
as preparation -tillage. 

1. The tillage of preparation insists that the land 
be broken and pulverized. The depth to which this 
pulverization or plowing shall extend must be deter- 
mined for each particular case: it depends on the 
character of the soil and the crop. Land which is very 
hard, or in which there is a high sub -soil, nearly always 
needs to be plowed deep; the effort must be to deepen 
the soil. Lands which are sandy or leachy may need 
to be plowed shallow and approximately the same 
depth every year ; the effort is to compact the under 
soil and thereby to prevent the leaching. The root- 
crops demand deep soil in order that the roots may 
grow long and symmetrical. This is emphatically true 
with such long- growing roots as parsnips, late beets, 
carrots and horse-radish. Forty or fifty years ago it 
was the general advice that land be plowed deep. But 
neither deep plowing nor shallow plowing is the unit. 
The depth of plowing is a question of conditions 

It is a favorite practice with the gardener to plow 
land in the fall. There are three objects of fall plow- 
ing : (1) To make the land earlier in the spring; (2) 
to be forehanded with the work; (3) to improve the 



Fall Plowing 



89 



physical character of the soil. Land which is plowed 
in the fall can nearly always be worked several days 
earlier than that which is plowed in the spring. It 
dries out sooner. Especially is this true of stiff or 
loamy lands. Clay lands may be very much improved 
in their physical texture by being plowed in the fall, 
so that the weather has a chance to break down and 
slack the lumps. It is important, however, that such 
land should contain more or less vegetable matter; 
otherwise it may run together and puddle during the 
winter season and be difficult to manage in the spring. 
If the land contains stubble of grain or grass, or if it 
has a covering of manure, such danger will be averted. 
If the land is clean and in good condition, it will not 
need to be plowed again in the spring, but can be 
worked down with heavy tools, like the spading har- 
rows, and be got in ideal condition (Fig. 24). When- 
ever land is needed very early in the spring, it is 
advisable to plow it in the fall. This remark applies 
with little force to light and sandy lands, for they can 
ordinarily be plowed very early. 

Lands may be made earlier to work if they are 
thrown into beds or ridges by the fall plowing, so that 
the dead -furrows occur every eight or ten feet. The 
surface water is then carried off and the ridges lie so 
high that they dry out quickly. This operation is 
sometimes spoken of as trenching, but it is more prop- 
erly ridging of the land. The term trenching^' should 
be reserved for its legitimate use to designate the 
spading up or loosening up of the land deeper than 
the original furrow. It is only a special practice. 



Sub 'Soiling 



91 



Sub -soiling is a common practice in market- garden- 
ing lands. It is nearly always advisable in lands which 
are hard or have a high sub -soil, and also for the 
long root-crops, which demand a deep soil in which to 
perfect their growth. Sub -soiling is not a permanent 
corrective of the land, for the soil very soon settles 
back into its original and hard condition, and the op- 
eration must be repeated. The fundamental corrective 
for such soils is underdraining and incorporation of 
humus. The growing of clover, which sends its roots 
deep into the soil, is also a great aid. But even with 
all these aids, sub -soiling may be very useful in certain 
cases. The sub-soil plow does not turn a furrow; it 
merely breaks the bottom of the original furrow. It is 
drawn by a separate team and follows in the furrow 
immediately behind the first plowman. 

2. The tillage of maintenance should occur at least 
as frequently as once in ten days for the best market - 
garden conditions. Surface- tillage enables the land to 
drink in the water of rainfall. It also saves the water 
in the soil by hindering evaporation: it maintains a 
loose and dry layer which acts as a mulch to the 
moister soil beneath. A board or a forkful of manure 
placed on the earth keeps the soil moist because it 
delays evaporation. A surface -mulch of dry earth 
acts in much the same way. The depth of this mulch 
must be determined by the character of the soil, kind 
of crop, frequency of tillage, and character of tools; 
but, as a rule, from three to four inches of loosely 
stirred earth is sufficient. It also solves the whole 
difficulty of weeds. All tillage of preparation — all 



92 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

fitting of the land — should be completed before the 
crop is put in; thereafter, only the surface -mulch is 
to be kept in repair. But many times the prepara- 
tion-tillage is not completed in its season, and the 
land must be fitted after the crop is sown by means 
of deep and heavy cultivating; it is usually a loss of 
effort and efficiency when preparation -tillage and main- 
tenance-tillage must be done at the same time. 

The soil in the surface-mulch is relatively dry, and 
it is moved so often that roots do not secure a foot- 
hold in it. It is therefore out of use for the time 
being as a source of plant-food; but it is more useful 
as a conservator of moisture than as plant-food. But 
its food comes into use when it is turned under the 
following season, and it is also carried down by the 
rains, particularly by those of spring and fall. The 
gardener must bear in mind that his plants need a soil 
of good physical texture, one which holds moisture, 
and one which has much available plant-food. Deep 
preparation enables the soil to hold moisture, and the 
surface-mulch saves much of it from evaporating. 

The rainfall of the growing season is often insuffi- 
cient for the crop. The plants draw on the moisture 
which has been stored in the soil by the winter rains 
and snows. Therefore, it is exceedingly important to 
save this winter rainfall, and this is done by fitting 
the soil and making the surface -mulch the moment 
the land is dry enough to work in spring. Even if 
the land is not to be used until June, it should^ be 
fitted early, and lightly harrowed at frequent intervals 
before the crop is planted. 



Rotation 



93 



Addition of humus, — Land is very rapidly improved 
by the incorporation of fiber. This fiber is secured by 
plowing under any kind of vegetation, as rye, clover, 
manure or the refuse of the garden. When this fiber 
decays it becomes humus. The humus improves the 
physical condition of the soil by making it loose, open 
and mellow; by enabling it to hold moisture ; by pre- 
venting the puddling or cementing of clay soils; by 
decreasing the heat of the surface soil in summer; 
and by improving the chemical condition. Humus 
itself contains plant -food. It also affords solvent 
acids which tend to unlock other plant -foods. If it is 
derived from leguminous plants, it also adds nitrogen. 
The chief reason for the almost extravagant use of 
stable manures by market -gardeners is the addition of 
humus. Lands which are thus manured year after year 
become quick and amenable to treatment. Fertilizers 
work quickly in them. The lands can be tilled at 
almost any time in the growing season, and when one 
crop is off another can be put in quickly. 

One great value of the rotation of crops is that it 
adds fiber and humus to the soil. It is probable that 
there is a tendency to use stable manure in excess 
in garden lands; that is, the same results in the incor- 
poration of humus can be had in many cases more 
cheaply by the growing of catch -crops. Particularly 
is this true of those areas which are some distance 
from the market and in which it is not necessary to 
practice rapid succession of market crops. 

Land which receives identical treatment year by 
year tends to depreciate. A rotation is useful because 



94 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

(1) it gives different treatments to the land, the fault 
of one year tending to be corrected by the manage- 
ment in another year; (2) no one element of plant -food 
is exhausted, the rotation tending to even up the 
demands on the soil; (3) one crop leaves the land 
in good physical condition for another ; (4) it incor- 
porates humus; (5) it destroys pests and weeds; (6) 
it economizes labor; (7) when green crops are turned 
under, available or digested plant -food is incorporated 
with the soil, and nitrogen may be supplied. The rota- 
tion of crops means, also, rotation in tillage, manuring 
and other treatment ; and one of these may be quite as 
important as the other. 

The philosophy of the resting'^ of land is hereby 
explained. It is not due to any need of recuperation 
in the soil ; but the good effects which follow are the 
compound results of the various benefits which are 
derived from tilling and rotation. Gardeners find that 
when soil becomes unproductive for a particular crop, 
a change to some other crop may result in profit. 
Soils which have been long kept in market-gardens may 
be benefited by seeding down for two or three years. 
Whenever possible, attempts should be made to prac- 
tice some kind of a rotation in the market-garden area. 
Now and then, a part of the land may be laid down to 
clover for a year or two. 

2. THE FERTILIZING OF THE LAND 

When the soil has been thoroughly fitted and im- 
proved by all the foregoing means, a gardener may 



Composts 



95 



think of adding plant -food. This plant-food may be 

supplied in some concentrated fertilizer; it is also added 
when green -crops are plowed under or when manure 
or compost of garden refuse is applied. It will now 
be seen that the best results are usually to be expected 
when there is something like a rotation in the ferti- 
lizing of the land, stable manures being used alter- 
nately with concentrated or commercial fertilizers. 




Fig. 25. Gardener's compost piles.— Manure on the left, sods on the right. 

Composts. — In the addition of plant-fiber to the 
soil, much will be gained if it is thoroughly decom- 
posed. It thereby becomes qr^ickly incorporated with 
the soil, and its plant -food soon becomes available. 
This is the explanation of the general desire of market- 
gardeners to have what they call ^^short'^ or well-rotted 
manure, and also the very common practice of com- 
posting manures and refuse. Composting consists in 
piling the various materials together in long, low, flat- 
topped piles, which may catch and retain the rainfall. 



96 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

and then forking them over two or more times during 
the season (Fig. 25). If the materials are thoroughly 
disintegrated and mixed, they are in fit condition to be 
put on the land and ' they readily become an integral 
part of the soil. Materials like tomato vines, potato 
vines and even corn stalks, which are too raw and coarse 
to apply directly to the land, may be made into useful 
and valuable material when they have been composted 
for several months or a 3^ear; although if serious dis- 
eases infest the refuse, the material would better be 
burned. The addition of quick -lime hastens the de- 
composition of raw materials. The florist, who must 
have his soils in ideal condition, is familiar with 
methods of composting, for he usually provides his 
soils a year in advance. 

Commercial fertilizers. — The kind and amount of 
fertilizers to be used are to be determined by several 
circumstances : (1) the earliness or quickness with 
which the crop is to be obtained ; (2) the intensity 
of the operations to which the man is committed ; (3) 
the character of the land as regards tilth and texture; 
(4) the character of the land as regards richness in 
plant -food ; (5) the kind or species of crops to be 
raised. 

There is no infallible means by which one can / 
determine what fertilizers he shall apply. He mus/ 
study his conditions and judge as best he can. A 
little experiment with different kinds of fertilizer 
on two or three of the leading crops at one side of 
the plantation, is the readiest means of answering the 
question. 



now much Fertilizer is Needed 



97 



The chemical analysis of the plant, while of the great- 
est use to the chemist in giving him suggestions, is of 
no practical use to the farmer in determining the kind 
of fertilizers or what amount shall be applied. The 
chemical contents of plants vary in the different 
seasons and in the different parts of the plant, and 
also with the soil in which the plant grows: the plant 
may take up more than it needs when some element is 
abundant. Even the widest variation in the amount of 
any one ingredient will be amply covered by the large 
amount of fertilizer which is ordinarily applied. Con- 
sider, for example, that the fruit of a tomato comprises 
.05 per cent of phosphoric acid and .27 per cent of 
potash. If the crop is ten tons of fruit per acre, it is 
probable that more than the average amount of phos- 
phoric acid required is ten pounds and of potash fifty- 
four pounds. It is safe to assume that the land 
itself should supply at least three -fourths of these 
amounts. We will assume that one -fourth is to be 
supplied by the addition of fertilizer. We should then 
apply to the acre two and one -half pounds of phos- 
phoric acid and about fourteen pounds of potash. As 
a matter of fact, however, the smallest amounts which 
are ever applied are many times in excess of these 
amounts. Fertilizers must always be applied in excess. 
It is impossible to distribute a very small quantity ; 
roots do not occupy every part of the ground. Much 
is risked in the chance that some may be used. 

FoUowing are figures which show that the best advice as to 
the use of fertilizers does not closely follow the chemical con- 
tent of the crop. The table gives the average amount of 

a 



98 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid removed from an acre; 
then the amount of these materials recommended by Voorhees 
(in his book on ^^Fertilizers"), and others and the differences 
between the two : 





Yield 


Per cent of 


Am't in total 


Am't 


Am't 






per acre 


N. P. 


K. 


crop— lbs. 


taken 


given 


Difference 




LBS. 


LBS. 




N. 


P. K. 


LBS. 


LBS. 


LBS. 


Cabbage. 


30,000 


.38 .11 


.43 


114 


33 129 


276 


333 


57 excess 


Carrots . 


30,000 


.16 .09 


.51 


48 


27 153 


228 


190 


38 defic'y 


Onions . . 


22,800 


.14 .04 


.10 


31.9 


9.1 22.8 


63.8 


247 


183 2 excess 


Parsnips. 


. 30,000 


.22 .19 


.62 


66 


57 186 


309 


190 


119 defic'y 


S. Potat's 


. 13,500 


.23 .10 


.50 


31 


13.5 67.5 


112 


312 


200 excess 


Tomatoes. 20,000 


.16 .05 


.27 


32 


10 54 


96 


120 


24 excess 



Supposing that the crop obtains none of its nitrogen, potash 
and phosphorus from the soil, it will be seen that the fertilizer 
recommended for cabbage is 57 lbs. in excess of the needs of 
a normal crop, and for fancy sweet potatoes 200 lbs. in excess. 
Yet it is probable that the recommendations are perfectly safe 
and economical, for the grower wants an extra rather than a 
good yield, he wants the crop early and quick- growing, and he 
wants to take no risk of failure. In parsnips and carrots, the 
recommended amounts are less than those required by the crop ; 
but in these cases earliness is not a prime requisite, and the 
plant is supposed to draw slowly a large part of its supply from 
the stored food in the soil. 

Another difficulty in the giving of advice for ferti- 
lizing the land is the variable character of the soil. 
This is particularly the case in the northern states, in 
which the soil is largely drift and is therefore very 
uneven in kind and depth. In the long stretches of 
sand on the Atlantic coastal plain or in the red clays 
of the South, and in nearly all alluvial soils, the prob- 
lem of choosing a fertilizer is less complex. The sandier 
and more uniform the land, the more marked, as a 
rule, will be the effect of commercial fertilizers. The 



When to Fertilize 



99 



harder the clay, the less marked, in general, is the 
effect, although amendments (as lime) may have great 
effect in making such soils granular. 

Again, the state of tillage has much to do with the 
efl&ciency of a fertilizer. The element which the plant 
needs may be afforded more cheaply by giving better 
tillage than by adding fertilizers ; for tillage sets at 
work the forces which unlock plant-food. On the other 
hand, fertilizer is more usable by the plant on well- 
tilled soils : the plant can get hold of it because the 
material is more evenly distributed ; there is more 
moisture to dissolve it ; the plant is more comfortable 
and vigorous and thereby better able to appropriate 
it. The good gardener is the one who gets the most 
out of his land by means of good tillage and then 
adds fertilizer to get more out of it. He uses fertilizer 
for the purpose of securing an extra yield, .not to pre- 
vent the soil from becoming exhausted. As a rule, the 
men who till best buy most plant-food. Fertilizer is 
usually a losing investment for a poor farmer. 

When to apply a fertilizer depends on (1) when it 
is needed by the plant, (2) the kind of fertilizer, (3) the 
soil, (4) the kind of plant, (5) the season of normal 
rainfall of the district. The more soluble the fertilizer, 
the looser the soil, the shallower the roots, the later 
the fertilizer may be applied. With trees, it matters 
little whether fertilizer is applied in fall or spring, for 
it will be one or two years, as a rule, before it affects 
the plant. With the general run of vegetable crops 
and on soils in good tilth, it is usually best to apply 
fertilizer in the spring, sowing it on the surface and 
LofC. 



100 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

harrowing it in. On ordinary soils, very little of it will 
be lost by leaching. Nitrates are most likely to leach. 
They are soluble and pass down quickly. Therefore, 
nitrate of soda and sulfate of ammonia should not 
be applied much in advance of the planting. With 
annual crops, fertilizer should not be applied much, if 
any, in advance of the planting : the fertilizer is needed 
near the surface, and it should be quickly available. 

There is much discussion whether fertilizer should 
be applied broadcast or in the hill, which proves that 
both methods are right. If one wants to enrich his 
land, or to afford sustenance to the plant throughout its 
growing season, apply broadcast. If one wants to use 
fertilizer to start the plant off and to maintain it until 
it gets a firm hold on the soil, apply in the hill. A 
most important use of commercial fertilizer in vege- 
table-gardening is to hasten the plant in the begin- 
ning. It is kindling-wood to start the blaze. 

The only way to determine what fertilizers to use 
is to try. On a small plot each year the gardener 
should experiment with fertilizers as he does with 
varieties. The fertilizer question is largely a local 
and special problem. 

The following directions given by the College of Agriculture 
of Cornell University, for the making of cooperative fertilizer 
experiments, will suggest to the farmer how he may experiment : 

The field should be plowed before the plats are laid out. 
Then use good, substantial stakes at the corners of the plats, 
and mark them in such a way that the plats will not become 
mixed, thereby avoiding confusion. It would be well to leave a 
space of four feet between each two plats in order to be sure 
that the plants on one plat cannot feed on the other plats. 



A Home Experiment 



101 



Do not lay out the plats on land that has been manured 
within one year. If you carried on fertilizer experiments last 
year, do not use the same set of plats again this season. 

The following diagram [slightly modified from the original] 
shows the arrangement of the plats, with the spaces between. 
Each plat is one rod wide and eight rods long: 



Plat 1— K. 15 lbs. Muriate Potash. 



Plat 2-N. 20 lbs. Dried Blood. 



Plat 3— P. 30 lbs. Acid Phosphate. 



Plat 4— Blank. No Fertilizer. 



-Di„+ K xnr Tv/r^^^^/lS lbs. Muriate Potash. 
Plat 5-NK. Mixed I 20 lbs. Dried Blood. 



Plat 6-PK. Mixed 



15 lbs. Muriate Potash, 
30 ibs. Acid Phosphate. 



Plat 7-NP. Mixed 



20 lbs. Dried Blood. 
30 lbs. Acid Phosphate. 



f 20 lbs. Dried Blood. 
Plat 8-NPK. Mixed^ 15 lbs. Muriate Potash. 

Uo lbs. Acid Phosphate. 



Plat 9~S. Stable Manure. 



102 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Apply the fertilizers broadcast on the whole of each plat, 
being careful not to sow any fertilizer on the check or blank plat 
No. 4, and harrow into the soil as thoroughly as possible. Har- 
row the plats lengthwise, because particular care must be taken 
that none of the fertilizer for one plat is sown on or is dragged 
on another . plat. In many cases muriate of potash injures the 
plant if applied just previous to putting in a crop ; so that the 
earlier this fertilizer is applied in the spring the less will be 
the danger of injury. 

The blank or check plat No. 4, with no fertilizer, must 
not be omitted. This is the most important of any single plat, 
because all of the others must be compared with the blank in 
order to learn how much benefit the fertilizers have been to the 
crop. 

You may grow any crop you wish on these plats. The same 
kind and same amount of seed is to be sown on each of the series 
of nine plats in the set. ^ It must be remembered that these 
experiments are to be tried upon the crop planted and not upon 
an accidental crop of weeds. In no case will the experiments be 
of value if the weeds are allowed to grow on the plats. Thorough 
tillage is one of the most important features of the field test. 

Following are some of the things to be noted in the study of 
the plats: 

I. Location of field, 

a. Upland. 

h. Lowland. (If lowland, does the soil from the side- 
hills wash down upon it ?) 
c. Hillside, etc. 

II. Character of soil, 

a. Sandy. 

h. G-ravelly. 

c. Clayey. 

d. Loamy, etc. 

€. How deep is surface soil ? 

/. Is there a hard-pan ; if so, how deep is it ? 

g. Does soil hold moisture, or dry out rapidly ? 



Fertilizer Problems 



103 



III. Fertility of soil. 

a. Does the soil possess the required amount of plant- 
food, or does it "run down" quickly and need 
enriching ? 

h. Have manures or fertilizers been applied in past 
years ? If so, how often, what kinds, and how 
much per acre ? 

IV. History of crops previous to test. 

What crops have been grown, and with how much 
yield per acre, in past years ? In case of cereals, 
consider the number of bushels of grain and 
tons of straw or stalks per acre. 

Whilst the gardener must regulate his fertilizer prac- 
tice by his own experiments and experience, he is not 
wholly dependent on his own resources. Scientific in- 
vestigation and general agricultural experience indicate 
what will probably take place in a given case. The 
general advice, for example, is to apply a complete 
fertilizer, — that is, one containing nitrogen, potash and 
phosphoric acid in about the proportions which experi- 
ence has found to be useful. This advice is particu- 
larly good when the person does not wish to experiment 
or to give the subject careful study. It is less useful, 
perhaps, when one does not wish to enrich the land as 
much as to give a stimulus to the young plant. It is 
generally considered that nitrogen promotes rapid vege- 
tative growth. It therefore may be used most freely 
on plants which are desired for their foliage parts. If 
it promotes growth, it also delays maturity. Therefore 
it should be used sparingly, or only early in the season, 
on fruit-bearing plants which tend to mature too late, 
as tomatoes and eggplants. Experiments at Cornell 



104 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



showed that a little nitrate of soda is better than much 
for tomatoes ; also, that a given quantity applied all at 
once early in the season is better than the same quan- 
tity applied at intervals, for in the latter case it pro- 
moted growth too late and the fruits did not ripen. 
For the person who has studied the subject and his 
soil, it is preferable to buy the elements in the form 
of high-grade chemicals and to apply each by itself. 
He can then apply little or much of any element to 
this place or to that, as he thinks best. Good com- 
mercial sources of nitrogen are nitrate of soda and 
sulfate of ammonia ; of potash, muriate of potash and 
unleached wood ashes ; of phosphoric acid, bone com- 
pounds and fossil phosphates (as South Carolina and 
Florida rocks) . Of nitrate of soda, 150 to 300 pounds 
to the acre is a good application ; of muriate of potash, 
from 200 to 400 pounds ; of treated South Carolina 
rock, from 200 to 400 pounds. 

Voorhees (^^ Fertilizers,'^ p. 267) recommends the 
following basic formula" for market- garden crops: 

Nitrogen 4 per cent 

Phosphoric acid 8 

Potash 10 

^^For market -garden crops, a fertilizer of the above 
composition may be regarded as a basic mixture, which 
may be applied to all of the crops, leaving the specific 
needs of the different plants to be met by top -dress- 
ings, or applications of the other constituents. The 
fertilizer ingredients, nitrogen and phosphoric acid, 
should preferably consist of the different forms, rather 



Fertilizer Problems 



105 



than to be all of one form, though the cost of the ele- 
ment will naturally regulate this point to some extent. 
That is, a part of the nitrogen should be nitrate or 
ammonia, and a part organic ; a part of the phos- 
phoric acid should be soluble (from superphosphates), 
and a part insoluble (from ground bone, tankage or 
natural phosphates). The soluble portions of both 
nitrogen and phosphoric acid contribute to the im- 
mediate needs of the plant, and the less soluble to 
its continuous and steady growth, and to the poten- 
tial fertility of the soil." 

For asparagus, Voorhees recommends from 1,000 
to 1,500 pounds per acre of fertilizer prepared on the 
above basic formula ; for peas and beans, 500 to 600 
pounds, to be supplemented, if needed, with 20 to 30 
pounds phosphoric acid and 60 to 75 pounds potash ; . 
for beets and turnips, 1,000 to 1,500 pounds at time 
of seeding, followed by 50 to 100 pounds of nitrate of 
soda ^^once every week or ten days, for at least three 
or four wrecks after the plants have well started.'' 
These details will illustrate the nature of the problem. 
The subject is taken up for the different crops in 
Part II. 

Voorhees recommends that the market - gardener 
"apply a reasonable excess of all the essential ferti- 
lizer constituents to all of the crops." "Given good 
natural conditions in respect to soil, and a favorable 
season, the one thing that more than any other con- 
trols the yield and quality of market -garden products 
is plant -food of the right amount and kind." "In 
these days, it is not only the yield of a definite area that 



106 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

must be considered, but the edible quality of the prod- 
ucts that are put upon the market. Quality depends 
upon, or is measured by, both appearance and palata- 
bility ; and palatability is determined by the succulence 
and sweetness of the vegetable, or its freedom from 
bitterness, stringiness, and other undesirable character- 
istics which frequently exist, and which can be largely 
eliminated, provided the grower is thoroughly familiar 
with his business, assuming, of course, that varieties 
are the same in each case. It has been demonstrated 
that market -garden crops of the best qualit}" are those 
which are grown under conditions which permit of a 
continuous and rapid development. Any delaj" in the 
growth of a radish or of lettuce is largely responsible 
for the sharp taste and pungent flavor of the former, 
and the bitterness and toughened fiber of the latter. 
The same principles hold true of early table beets and 
turnips. The beets become stringy and wiry in char- 
acter, and are less palatable if during the period of 
normal growth there has been an}' delay. In a time 
during which there has been no progress the fibrous 
portion of the vegetable is toughened, and exists in 
too great proportion. In the case of the early turnip, 
if any delay in growth occurs, the quality is injured, 
and the peculiar, pleasant flavor, a characteristic of the 
perfect vegetable, is changed ; it becomes unpleasant. 
The unfavorable conditions of growth seem to cause 
more or less reversion to the character of the original 
plant from which the improved type has been derived, 
mainly through selection and improved methods of 
cultivation." 



CHAPTER IV 



VEGETABLE' aABDENIN a TOOLS 

Relative to the price of land, labor is expensive 
in America. It must be economized. Tools and imple- 
ments are a necessity. 

There is a tool for every labor. Many of these tools 
are the products of necessity. Others satisfy the invent- 
ive fancy of the American. Foreign writers wonder 
at the variety of tools pictured in our rural books, but 
the number of tools which are in actual use far exceeds 
those which are described in books. To an important 
degree it is true that the successful American farmer 
is known by the number and variety of his tools. The 
man who has many useful implements emphasizes 
brain above brawn. He is tactful and resourceful. 
He means to be master of the situation. He is to 
accomplish the given^ result with the least expenditure 
of mere physical energy. He will do his work better 
and more expeditiously than the man who depends on 
his hands and his muscles. Good tools educate the 
man. Their use cultivates ingenuity. They teach him 
to think. 

On the other hand, the man who is rich in agri- 
cultural implements has less intimate contact with his 
plants than the hand -worker has. The machine is 

(107) 



108 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



between him and the plant. He depreciates the value 
of painstaking human care in the growing and the 
training of the plant. ^ 




Fig. 26. Various types of plows. 

f is a gang-plow, turning three furrows at once; is a winged shovel or 
furrowing or hilling plow; i is a subsoil plow. 



In American conditions, however, a large equipment 
of tools is necessary to an abundant and cheap crop. 
The nicest judgment is required to make a proper 



110 The Principles of Vegetable- Gar denifig 




Fig. 28. Rollers, 

a, National; b, c, sectional iron or steel rollers; d, Cyclone pulverizer; e, Wil- 
der lawn roller; f, Wilder crusher and clod pulverizer; g, Henderson's 
lawn roller; h, Straddle-crop roller; i, l-horse roller. 

selection of tools; for the kinds should be determined 
by (1) the character of the soil, (2) the size of the plan- 
tation, (3) the comparative earliness of the required 
product, (4) the kinds of plants to be grown, (5) the per- 
sonal ideals of the farmer. Tools which are adapted to 
the working of clay soils may not be adapted to sand. 



Classification of Tools 



111 



There should be a tool for each diverse type of labor. 
An advantage of the variety in tools offered by Ameri- 
can dealers is the fact that a tool may be selected for 
each particular purpose. Some farms are overstocked 
with tools. Too much capital is locked up in them. 
This fault is usually the result of duplication, — the 
various tools are too similar, they do not per- 
form different kinds or types of labor. 

It requires nearly as many tools to equip 
one acre of market -garden as to equip five 




Fig. 29. Wlieel-lioes for garden work. 

acres. Consequently, it is relatively cheaper to till a 
fairly large area, so long as it can be tilled well. 

Market -gardening tools may be roughly classified 
as follows : 

I. Tools for Ullage, 

Tools to prepare the land for planting : 
Plows (Fig. 26), 
Harrows (Fig: 27), 
Cultivators, 
Rollers (Fig. 28), 

Hand- tools of various kinds, as spades, shovels, 
wheel -hoes (Figs. 29, 32). 



112 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Tools, for subsequent use, — to maintain the con- 
dition of the land : 

Cultivators, 

Weeders (Fig. 30), 

Hand-tools, as wheel-hoes, hoes, rakes, scari- 
fiers, finger -weeders. 

II. Tools to facilitate hand-work. 

In distributing manure and fertilizer, 

In marking the land, 

In sowing (Fig. 37, Chap. V), 

In planting, 

In spraying (Chap. VI), 

In harvesting. 

In preparing the product for market or sale. 

III. Tools for transportation. 

Carts and barrows (Fig. 31), 
Stone-boats and sledges. 
Wagons. 

For any market -garden which is large enough to 
be worked by horses, the following general -purpose 
tools, at the least, will be needed (see also the inven- 
tories on pp. 24-30) : 

1 2 -horse plow, , 
1 1- horse plow, 

1 furrowing or single shovel plow, 

1 spading- or cutaway-harrow, if the land is heavy. 

1 spring -tooth harrow, 

1 roller or slicker, 

1 smoothing harrow, . 



Fig. 30. Horse weeders. 
a. Breed; &, Wiard; c, Eclipse; d, Fanning, for attachment to rear of cultivator; 
e, Aspinwall; f, Hallock's Success; g, Champion; ?i, Iron Age weeder at- 
tachment. 



H 



114 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



1 spike -tooth cultivator, 

1 wide -tooth or shovel -blade cultivator, 

1 marker, 

1 seed- sower, 

1 or more hand wheel -hoes, 
1 or more wagons, 
1 stone -boat, 
1 wheelbarrow, 

1 spraying outfit. 

Spade, shovels, hoes, rakes, forks, hand-weeders, 
trowels and dibbers, hose, watering cans, car- 
penters' tools. 

Tools of secondary importance, but which the well- 
equipped market -garden must possess, are: 

Gang -plow, if the area is large. 
Subsoil plow. 
Swivel plow, 

2 or more types of spading, cutaway, or disk har- 

rows, if the land is heavy, 
Acme and other harrows. 
Wire -tooth weeder, 

Various patterns of cultivators for special work. 
Plant -setter. 
Fertilizer distributor, 
Trucks and wagons. 

Aside from these various tools, there are special 
implements for special crops, as celery -hillers, aspara- 
gus-bunchers, potato -diggers, potato -sorters, and the 
like. 

In selecting a tool, the buyer should know 



What Tools to Buy 



115 




Fig. 31. Various barrows, carts and trucks. 
All of which are useful for the gardener. / is a good type of hand spray 
pump for small areas. 



(a) what labor is to be performed, {hj what implement 
will best perform it. Many farmers buy a tool because 
it is perfect as a mechanism or merely because it is 
an improvement on what they already have. This is 
well ; but it should be borne in mind, after all, that 



116 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

the tool is not the first consideration, — it is not the 
unit. The unit is the work to be done or the con- 
dition to be attained. A farmer may not ask, there- 
fore, whether he shall buy a spading-harrow : he 
should consider his soil and what he wants to do with 
it, and then search for the tool which will do the 
work best. 

The plow is the primary or fundamental farm 
implement. It is the general -purpose machine. Its 
office is to prepare the land, not to maintain it in 
condition. As a class, stiff and heavy soils require 
heavy plows and deep plowing. Sandy soils may be 
the better for shallow plowing, for it is often desir- 
able to compact the subsoil rather than to loosen it. 
There are conditions and conditions. 

Plowing has two general offices : {a) to break and 
pulverize the soil to fit it for the growth of the crop; 
(&) to begin the preparation of a seed-bed in which 
the plant may get a start. In the plowing of the 
sandy soils mentioned above, it may be the second office 
which is sought : only a good seed-bed is desired, for 
the land is loose enough without the plowing. In the 
clay field, both offices are sought. Not deep plowing 
nor shallow plowing is a principle : it is only a means 
of accomplishing a desired result. The unit is the con- 
dition which is to be secured in the particular soil. 

The seed-bed is finished by the harrow. The soil 
is maintained in tilth by the harrow. The harrow, 
therefore, is an implement both for preparing and 
maintaining the soil condition. If the soil is light, 
loose or sandy, tillage presents few difficulties and 



Managing Clay Soils 



117 



relatively little expense. If it is clayey, tillage must 
be nicel}^ managed for best results. Many people 
expend more time and muscle on clay lands than are 
required. The one important item is timeliness. When 
the soil is betwixt wet and dry, it breaks as it turns 
from the plow. Turn it up loose and open. Then 
let it lie for a few hours or a day. As the clods 
begin to dry, work roughly with a strong harrow, as a 
spading-harrow, spring- tooth, or Acme. Do not try to 
work it down fine. As the lumps begin to dry after 
the next rain, hit them with the boot. If they break 
and crumble, work the land again, this time with a 
lighter harrow. A few timely workings when the soil 
is just right will accomplish more than thrice the 
labor at other times. Many people make the mistake 
of tilling their clay lands until they become too fine. 
Then a rain packs and cements them, and the trouble 
begins all over again. Because sandy and loamy soils 
are best when fine and mealy, people think clays must 
be ; but clay is not sand. The addition of humus 
enables one to make a clay soil mealy. 

Gradually, as the texture improves, lighter tools may 
be used to maintain the surface mulch, — for the tillage 
of maintenance really has no other primary office than 
to keep the surface loose. When finally the wire- tooth 
weeder can be used, the gardener may know that his 
surface soil is in perfect physical condition. To most 
general farmers the weeder is a useless tool, but 
market -gardeners prize it, — which illustrates the differ- 
ences in tillage between the common farm and the 
market- garden. 



118 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

A one-horse harrow is usually known as a culti- 
vator. But there are two types of cultivators, — those 
which only stir the soil and repair the surface mulch, 
as the spike -tooth cultivators; and those which move 
the soil or even invert it, as the shovel -tooth culti- 




Fig. 32. The onion-bed condition of land. Tilling with the wheel-hoe. 



vators. Are not shovel- tooth cultivators too common 
and spike-tooth cultivators too rare? 

In the market -garden, the wheel -hoe is important. 
It saves immensely of hand labor and usually leaves 
the soil in better condition than hand -work does. 
Have a number of patterns, large and small. Select 
a large wheel with a broad tire, that it may ride over 



Roes and Rollers 



119 



lumps and travel on soft ground. Soil must be in good 
condition to be worked with wheel-hoes ; therefore, 
they should be introduced for their educational effect. 
Aim at the onion -bed condition of tilth (Fig. 32). 

A hand -hoe is a clumsy and inefficient tillage tool. 
Its one merit in this regard is the fact that it can ^e 
used between the plants, where many other tools can- 
not enter ; but it leaves no efficient surface mulch and 
does not often improve soil-texture. The common hoe 
has two types of legitimate uses on the farm, — to aid 
in planting, to kill weeds. As a tillage -tool, the rake 
is far superior. Most persons use the hoe as they 
would a pick, — to chop the earth. Much hoeing usually 
wastes soil moisture. 

Rollers have two uses : (a) to break clods and 
level the ground, (&) to provide moisture for seeds or 
newly set plants. They provide moisture by wasting 
it. Rolling the land establishes capillary connection 
with the under soil, and brings the particles into con- 
tact with the seeds. It destroys the surface mulch. 
The water rises and passes off into the air: in its 
passage, it moistens the seeds. As soon as the seed- 
lings or transplanted plants are established, therefore, 
restore the surface mulch. The farmer pats his hill 
of corn with the hoe, thereby accomplishing the result 
which he secures on the wheat field with his roller. 
The gardener walks over his row of seeds. 

If the roller is used only to break the clods, the 
land should be tilled again to restore the surface mulch. 
The roller is a poor tool in the hands of a thoughtless 
man. For the leveling of land, a home-made planker 



120 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



or slicker is a useful tool. A similar device may be 
attached to a cultivator frame (Fig. 33, Planet Jr. 



is best which does the given work best ; and there 
are many kinds of work to be done. The vegetable- 
gardener can use outfits running from the power of 
the vehicle wheels better than the orchardist can. Do 
not buy a sprinkler or a machine which allows the 
spray to fall by mere gravity. Have a pump. The 
liquid must be thrown with force. Use a nozzle with 
a small aperture, so that the material will be finely 
broken. A nozzle has carrying power and distribut- 
ing power. As a rule, the farther it carries, the less 
finely it distributes the liquid. If possible, have the 
nozzle near its work : force the liquid through a hose 
rather than through the air. Have the nozzle on the 
end of the hose ; and have the end of the hose where 
the bug is. 

Secure a spraying outfit of large capacity. It is 
more efficient and more economical of labor. Be sure 
that the pump is strong, well made, brass-lined, and has 
much power. Clean it thoroughly inside before putting 
it away for winter. Get it out a month before it is 



Leveler) . 




Spraying machinery has 
come to be a necessity. No 
one kind of pump or nozzle is 
best. A nozzle which throws 
a stream the farthest is the 
least useful when it is desired 
to apply the stream near at 
hand. That is, that machine 



Fig. 33. Leveling device attached 
to a cultivator frame. 



Combination Tools 



121 



wanted in spring ; it will probably need tinkering. 
Year by year, spraying machinery is improving. Send 
to the manufacturers for catalogues. Read the papers 
and the bulletins. 

In general, it is best to avoid combination tools 
which, by means of various attachments are designed 
to perform very unlike kinds of labor. They are likely 
to be less efficient than tools made directly for the 
given labor, and are also more liable to get out of re- 
pair. They are usually cheaper than separate tools, 
however, and some of them are very satisfactory. 



CHAPTER V 



SEEDS AND SEED AGE 

Nearly all vegetable -gardening crops are grown 
directly from seeds. Therefore, the character of the 
seed is of vital importance to the vegetable -grower. 
The larger part of seed-tests and germination studies in 
this country are made with vegetable-gardening seeds. 
In fact, when seed-tests are mentioned, the vegetables 
or cereals are commonly the only plants which come 
to mind. It is important that careful attention be 
given to the character and quality of seeds for the 
vegetable -garden. The loss of a crop and of the 
season's labor is often the result of poor seeds. 

Good seeds satisfy four general tests or demands: (1) 
they must be viable,^ or able to grow; (2) they must be 
pure, or with no other kinds of seeds intermixed; (3) 
they must be true to name; (4) they must have the 
greatest possible longevity. 

1. THE LONGEVITY OF SEEDS 

The length of time a seed will live varies with 
(1) the species or variety ; (2) the conditions under 

*For general agricultural discussions, the word viability is usually preferable 
to vitality. A viable seed is one which is capable of growing ; a vital seed is one 
which is alive, but it may not have sufficient vitality to be able to complete its 
germination. 

(122) 



Longevity of Seeds 123 



which it was grown; (3) the degree of ripeness; (4) 
the manner in which it is stored and handled ; (5) 
the condition as respects mechanical or insect injuries. 
There is a limit to the life of every seed, yet when 
this limit is reached there may be no evidence in 
the seed itself, either external or internal, to indicate 
the loss of vitality. The seed must be placed under 
circumstances most favorable to its germination, and 
its condition tested by its ability or inability to grow. 
In practice, the seeds of a given plant are tested 
in a greater or less quantity, the percentage of the 
quantity which germinates being adopted as the meas- 
ure of germinative vitality. This results in a test of 
the species, variety, or the sample as a whole, rather 
than in a test of individual seeds. Hence it follows 
that the limit of viability in commercial tests does not 
represent the extreme age at which it is safe to plant, 
there being a constant failure of individual seeds from 
the first instance of loss of life until no one seed in 
the sample remains alive. It therefore becomes appar- 
ent that, as a rule, the fresher the seeds the better the 
results, independent of the figures representing extreme 
duration of vitality. Haberlandt shows that there is an 
increasing failure in seeds kept from year to year. In 
the tests 100 seeds were used in each case: 

1 yr. old 2 yrs. 3 yrs. 4 yrs. 6 yrs. 

Wheat ... 96 germinated. 84 60 73 4 

Barley ... 89 92 33 48 , . 

Oats .... 96 80 32 72 48 



The germinative power of seeds is sometimes tested 
by placing the seeds on live coals. Those which snap 



124 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

sharply are supposed to have been good. It is also 
tested by throwing the seeds into water, those which 
sink being regarded as viable. These practices are not 
to be recommended. 

1. The natural and normal limit of germinative vital- 
ity is usually a specific character, peculiar to the indi- 
vidual species. Therefore no general law concerning 
the natural or normal limit of vitality can be enunci- 
ated. Species of very close botanical affinity often 
differ widely in this regard. In some instances, how- 
ever, there are tolerably well-defined family traits, as, 
for example, in the Cucurbitaceae (pumpkins, squashes, 
melons, cucumbers), of which most of the species pos- 
sess a rather high longevity, and likewise in the Le- 
guminosae. Seeds of the Umbelliferae, on the other 
hand (as parsnip, carrot, celery, parsley), have a rela- 
tively low vitality, and this trait is probably associated 
with the oily character of the seeds and fruits. This 
natural longevity is not correlated with the normal 
size of the seed. The minute seeds of tobacco, if per- 
fect, grow well when seven or eight years old, but the 
large seeds of castor bean may fail in two years. 

2. The loyigevity or vitality of seeds is determined 
largely hy the conditions under which they grew. As a 
rule, the most vigorous development of plant produces 
the most perfect vitality of seed, although the product 
of such seed may not be the most satisfactory for the 
cultivator. Conversely, a poor season for the vegeta- 
tion of any plant, or other untoward circumstance, by 
causing a weak plant, produces seeds of impaired 
vitality. Seedsmen are aware of this fact, and they 



Fresh Seeds 



125 



are often able to forecast the value of the seed -crop 
of certain plants by knowing the season and condi- 
tions under which it is grow^n. Seeds from poorly 
developed plants, if fully ripe, are seldom distinguish- 
able by the eye from those grown under the best 
conditions. They often give a very high test soon 
after they have been harvested, but rapidly decline 
in value, and at planting season, the following 
spring, may be worthless. Consequently, tests made 
in autumn or early winter may be of little value to 
the cultivator. 

What are known to the trade as round seeds'^—cab- 
bage, turnip, radish, and the like — are very likely to be 
influenced in keeping qualities by the conditions which 
obtained during the year in which they were grown. 
Cabbage may germinate 70 to 80 per cent in its eighth 
year, and again it may fall below 40 per cent in the 
third year. The character of the resulting plants, as 
well as mere percentage oE germination, may be affected. 
Therefore, to know the year in which the seed is grown 
is sometimes more important than merely to know its 
age. Gardeners demand fresh seeds : this is well, and 
yet old seeds may be better. The best seed merchants 
lay in an extra stock in the good years, and the dis- 
criminating buyer chooses this stock as long as it 
retains a fair percentage of germination. 

A mechanical or other injury to the growing plant 
may produce the same effect on the seeds as an un- 
propitious season. For example, a certain fine crop of 
seed-cabbages was attacked late in the season by great 
numbers of plant-lice. The seeds produced were to 



126 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

appearances of good quality, and the first test gave a 
high percentage of germination. A test made a month 
later by two parties indicated a decrease of nearly 
15 per cent in germination and subsequent tests in- 
dicated a constant lessening of viability. By spring 
the seeds were worthless. 

As a rule, light-weight seeds give lower germinat- 
ing percentages than heavy ones of the same variety, 
and the weight is often determined by the conditions 
of growth of the plant and its seeds. No doubt the 
position of the seed in the fruit has something to do 
with its germinative vitality, inasmuch as such posi- 
tion must sometimes influence its weight and other 
physical properties. This subject receives little defi- 
nite attention, however, although the relation of the 
position of the seed with reference to character of its 
offspring, a subject with which we are not now con- 
cerned, suggests experiment. Seedsmen know that 
if seeds' for testing are taken from the top of a bag 
which has been shipped in one continuous position, 
the percentages of germination will not often be as 
great as those obtained from seeds taken from the 
middle or bottom of. the bag where the heavier seeds 
have settled. 

A citation may be made (1st Rep. N. Y. Exp. Sta. 83) 
to indicate the extent to which an injury to the plant may 
influence the weight of seeds. One hundred seeds of each of 
three lots of ordinary White Grlobe onion seeds weighed respec- 
tively 5.91, 5.98 and 4.99 grains, or an average of 5.63 grains. 
One hundred grains of the same variety from a grafted plant 
weighed 3.97 grains, 100 from a ligatured plant weighed 4.05 
grains, and 100 from a compressed stalk, 3.48 grains. 



Position of the Seed 



127 



The position of the fruit on the plant or inflorescence may 
exercise some influence on germination. The following state- 
ment records percentages of germinations from kernels of corn 
and other cereals taken from the base, the middle and the tip 
of the ear or inflorescence, 100 kernels being tested in each 
case (Sturtevant, in 2d Rep. N. Y. Exp. Sta. 63): 



Base Middle Tip 

Waushakum Flint Corn 80 72 95 

White Rice Pop Corn 100 100 100 

Red Rice Pop Corn 98 94 100 

Minnesota Dent Corn 98 100 100 

Early Dent Corn , 82 24 33 

Sibley's Pride of the North Corn ... 100 100 97 

Wheat 99 100 

Wheat = 100 100 100 

Oats 94 88 100 

Oats 100 100 100 

Sorghum 65 86 89 



While the results of this trial are discordant, the explana- 
tions of the differences are easily suggested. It is probable 
that in those cases in which the germinations were higher from 
the tips, the kernels were not so fully matured as below, 
while the record states that "in the case of the dent corns, 
some were under-ripe and the germination imperfect," the tip 
kernels apparently not being ripe enough to grow. The experi- 
ment, therefore, appears to prove nothing concerning the germi- 
nating power of seeds from various parts of the inflorescence 
only as such position indicates comparative development and 
maturity. Another test made by the same experimenter in a 
field plot, upon Waushakum corn, gave the following results: 
"Of the 80 butt kernels, 56 kernels, or 70 per cent, germinated; 
of the 611 central kernels, 589 kernels, or 96 per cent, germi- 
nated; of the 80 tip kernels, 78 kernels, or 97.5 per cent, germi- 
nated. We may, however, conclude that in general on normal, 
well -selected ears, the tip and butt kernels are as likely to grow 
as are the central kernels." This experiment is at fault, from 



128 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



the fact that all the kernels of the ear were used, thereby largely 
obliterating any difference that might exist between the butt, 
the middle and tip kernels by introducing all the intermediate 
variations. 

Abnormal seeds, being usually imperfectly formed or not 
fully developed, possess a low vitality as a rule. The "tassel 
corn" affords an illustration in point ( Sturtevant) : 

i 

Abnormal corn produced on the tassel 

No. kernels No. Per cent 
Variety planted grew grew 

7 29.2 
19 22.6 
21 25 
16 29.1 
18 75 
11 45.8 
6 25 

Imperfect fertilization is often the cause of low 
germinative vitality, or even of its absence. The seed 
may develop to the full size and ordinary appearance 
and yet entirely lack the embryo. Nageli considers 
the following degrees of sterility of seeds due to 
imperfect fertilization : a small and imperfect fruit 
with empty seeds ; ordinary fruit with empty seeds ; 
ordinary or normal fruit and apparently good seeds 
but which have no embryo ; ordinary fruit with seeds 
bearing a minute and imperfect embryo which cannot 
germinate. This absence or imperfection of the 
embryo is in some cases the cause of lightness of 
seeds, although lightness is, no doubt, oftener due to 
a deficiency in nutrient matter. 

The color of the seed appears to exercise no influ- 



White Pop Corn 24 

Waushakum Flint 84 

84 

...... .55 

24 

Blount's Prolific 24 

24 



Color and Germination 



129 



ence on germination, although it is often the expression 
of some anatomical conformation of the seed-coats, of 
weight, or some other condition which may have to 
do with the germination of the seed. In some cases 
the color indicates improper handling and curing of 
the seeds. In itself, however, color is unimportant. 

Numerous tests made with clover seeds of different colors 
by Beal, showed no differences in favor of one color over another. 
Sturtevant investigated the germinating power of light- colored 
and dark seeds, with the following results : 





Per cent 


Per cent 


Weight 


Weight 




of germi- 


of germi- 


of 100 


of 100 




nation of 


nation of 


light- 


dark- 




light- 


dark- 


colored 


colored 




colored 


colored 


seeds 


seeds 




seeds 


seeds 


GRS. 


GRS. 


Early Purple Cape Broccoli . . . 


. . 79 


92 


4.08 


4.93 


Earliest Blood Red Erfurt Cabbage 


. 74 


77 


3.46 


5.78 




, . 83 


98 


4.23 


5.09 


Schweinfurt Largest White Cabbage . 96 


98 


3.46 


5.78 


Chou Mille Tetes Kale or Cabbage 


. . 91 


100 


5.86 


7.40 



While the results show decided advantage possessed by the 
dark seeds over the light- colored ones, the gains are undoubtedly 
due to the fuller development of the seeds rather than to their 
color merely, inasmuch as the dark-colored seeds are the heavier. 
As a light color is often indicative of less weight or less vigorous 
development, however, it may be looked upon, in many cases 
at least, as an evidence of inferior germinative vitality. The 
result with endive seeds, which gave figures of an opposite 
character, are not quoted, as the age of the seed is not desig- 
nated, and as this plant usually gives anomalous results with 
fresh seeds. 

The latitude and general climatic conditions under 
which seeds are grown appear to exercise an impor- 
tant influence on germination, although one which is 



I 



130 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



commonly overlooked. Seeds grown in the' North 
usually germinate more quickly and sometimes tend to 
make earlier plants than those grown in the South.* 

3. Seeds which are under-ripe tend to lose their 
vitality relatively early. Seeds often may be made to 
germinate if gathered and dried when still very green, 
if only the embryo is well formed. Seeds of tomatoes 
which do not weigh more than two-thirds as much 
as fully ripe ones and which are still very green, may 
be made to grow when properly cured. Such seeds 
usually give earlier plants, although the plants are 
likely to be weaker ; but the seeds do not long retain 
their viability. 

Sagot (Gard. Chron. Sept., 1874, 329) succeeded in germinating 
green kernels of wheat which were still soft and tender, collected at 
a time when nutrient matters were semi -liquid. When well dried 
in air, these kernels weighed but half as much as ripe kernels. 
"All of them germinated, though slowly." Unripe peas, weigh- 
ing one-half, one-fifth and even one-twelfth of ripe peas, were 
made to germinate by the same experimenter. The half -weight 
seeds germinated rapidly. Of the twelfth-weight seeds, many 
did not germinate, and some died soon after the commencement 
of their development. Half-weight seeds of beans and four- 
o^clock (Mirabilis Jalapa) also germinated. 

Studies of unripe seeds as a factor in plant-breeding have 
been made in this country by Sturtevant, Arthur and Goif . For 
an epitome of the results-, see Arthur in American Naturalist, 
1895, pp. 806, 904. 

4. The manner of storing amd handling determines 
the longevity of seeds to a great extent. In fact, the 
most vigorous and naturally long-lived seeds may be 

*See tests recorded in Bull. 7, Cornell Exp. Sta. For discussions of the 
philosophy of the subject, see Essay 17, in the author s "Survival of the Unlike." 



Conditions of Storing 



131 



spoiled in a short time by improper conditions of 
storing. 

The failure of seeds from conditions of preserva- 
tion is illustrated in a method employed by Sturtevant. 
The following table represents germinations of various 
varieties of corn, selected from a large series of 
experiments : 

No. of No. of Per cent 



Age of seed trials seeds tried germination 

X year 17 1,075 100 

2 years 37 3,005 100 

3 years 7 725 100 

5 years 1 93 100 



Under proper conditions, therefore, corn preserves 
its vitality perfectly for five years. The next table 
exhibits the germinations of the entire series from 
which the former examples were selected: 









Minimum 


Maximum 


Average 




No. of 


" No. of 


germina'n, 


germina'n, 


germina' 


Age of seed 


trials 


seeds tried 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


%year . . 


. . 37 


3,550 


41 


100 


94 


1 year . . 


. . 3 


250 


30 


48 


42 


2 years . 


. . 65 


5,560 


2 


100 


95 


3 years . 


. . 37 


3,625 


52 


100 


85 


4 years . 


. . 2 


200 


80 


81 


80 


5 years . 


. . 1 


93 


100 


100 


100 



The differences between the minimum percentages 
and 100 per cent must be due to conditions of preser- 
vation. The average percentage of germination in each 
case represents an exact measure of loss. This loss 
amounts in the total average to 18.8 per cent. 

5. Mechanical and insect injuries usually lessen the 
germinative vitality of seeds. The threshing process 



132 Tlie Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



often cracks seeds and thereby renders them almost 
valueless. Larbaletrier asserts* that the injury from 
the threshing machine in France, upon wheat, can 
always be reckoned at 15 per cent of the crop. He 
cut kernels with the pen -knife so as to represent the 
injury from the machine, and compared their germi- 
native power with that of sound kernels, under three 
methods of treatment, with the following results : 

Sonnd kernels Cut kernels 

68 per cent germinated 34 per cent germinated 

99 38 

Sturtevant mutilated in various ways the kernels 
of Waushakum Flint Corn and seeds of beans and 
planted them under the surface of soil: 

Xo. of kernels 

or seeds No. 
planted grew 



Corn, cut lengthwise to bisect germ 10 1 

Corn, more or less of the albumen removed . 20 12 

Corn, part of one edge removed 10 3 

Corn, small portion of chit removed, the 

embryo not being injured 10 

Bean, one cotyledon removed, germ uninjured . 20 13 



These researches, although showing that mutilated 
seeds may grow, nevertheless prove that germination 
is feeble and that mechanically injured seeds are 
unreliable. 

The germinative vitality of weevil -eaten or ^M3uggy^' 
peas is low, and the plants resulting from them are 
usually feeble. Beal gives t the following results with 



*L8 Cocq de Lantreppe, Country Grentleman, Nov. 10, 1887, 852- 
tRep. Mich. Bd. Agr. 1879, 195. 



Buggy Peas 



133 



the germination of buggy" peas as contrasted with 
that of uninjured peas of the same variety: 



Seeds 



Where 
tested 



No. of seeds No. germi- 
planted nated 



Early peas of moderate size, smooth, 

sound Soaked in water 50 Nearly all 

buggy" " " 50 1 

sound Greenhouse 25 25 

"buggy" 25 4 

sound Soil in June 12 12 

"buggy" 25 3 

These peas were tested in the spring from seeds 
grown the previous season. ^^The weevil -eaten seeds 
produced feeble plants." A year later the same lot 
of seeds was used for a second experiment. Five 
hundred of the weevil -eaten peas were divided into 
ten lots of fifty each and tested in a greenhouse. 
Alongside these the same number of sound peas were 
tested, all but four of which, or 99.2 per cent, germi- 
nated. The table gives the figures for the injured 
seeds ; 

First lot of 50 12 grew 

Second lot of 50 10 

Third lot of 50 8 

Fourth lot of 50 12 

Fifth lot of 50 17 

Sixth lot of 50 11 

Seventh lot of 50 12 

Eighth lot of 50 18 

Ninth lot of 50 ' . . 17 

Tenth lot of 50 13 



130, or 26 per cent 



134 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Trivial injury to the mere integument of the seed may 
hasten germination. Such injury allows of the absorption of 
water and the liberation of the germ. The practice of filing and 
notching of various hard seeds — as of cannas, moonflowers — 
illustrates this. The soaking and freezing of seeds have similar 
effects. Sturtevant (3d Rep. N. Y. Exp. Sta. 328) has experi- 
mented with mechanical injuries to the integuments. A lot of 
160 Black Wax beans was divided into four lots of 40 each. 
Lot No. 1 was treated by slightly mutilating the seed -coat opposite 
the hilum. Lot No. 2 had the coat mutilated in same manner, but 
was afterwards greased with tallow to retard absorption of mois- 
ture. Those of Lot No. 3 were not injured. Those of Lot No. 4 
were not injured but were greased with tallow. The most rapid 
germinations occurred in the first lot, and the next most rapid 
in the third lot. The slowest germinations occurred in the fourth 
and second lots, respectively, showing that an oily coat is a 
retardative of germination. Following are the figures : 

No. which No. which No. which 
had germi- had germi- had germi- 





nated in 


nated in 


nated in 




Seeds five days 


seven days 


eight days 


Lot No. 1, 




30 


37 


Lot No. 2, 


mutilated and greased . . 10 


25 


35 


Lot No. 3, 




28 


40 


Lot No. 4, 


not mutilated and greased . 


4 


^ 29 



Tables of longevity of seeds. — Perhaps the most extended and 
careful series of investigations yet inaugurated for the purpose 
of determining the vegetative duration of seeds is that under- 
taken by Messrs. H. E. Strickland, Daubeny, Henslow and Lind- 
ley, under the auspices of the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science. As many as 288 genera, in 71 orders, were 
subjected to test in three places, Oxford, Chiswick and Cam- 
bridge. A Seminarium was instituted at Oxford and placed in 
the charge of W. H. Baxter. Samples of seeds in sufficient 
quantity to furnish sets for testing at frequent intervals during 
a century or more were carefully stored. A summary of results 
is given in the reports for 1850, p. 160, and 1857, p. 43. 



Tables of Longevity 



135 



The standard figures of longevity are those contained in 
Vilmorin's Vegetable Garden" ('^Les Plantes Potageres"), 
which are easy of access, both in the original and in the 
" Horticulturist ' s Rule - Book . 

The following figures are selected from a table prepared by 
Sturtevant, combining the tests made at the New York Experi- 
ment Station during three years. The tests were made at such 
widely separated intervals, upon such a number of seeds and so 
many varieties, that individual errors must be largely elimi- 
nated. Yet the percentages as recorded in the last column are 
unsatisfactory, and are proof of the assertion that any general 
statements of the limits of vitality are necessarily imperfect and 
relative. Since the report in which these results are published 
(4th Rep. N. Y. Exp. Sta. 58), may not be accessible to the 
reader, most of the figures are reprinted here: 



Artichoke (Cynara] 



Asparagus . . 



Bean, common 



Beet 



No. of 
trials 


No. of 

varieties 
tested 


Total No. 
of seeds 
tested 


Age ill 
years 


Average 
per cent 
germinated 




1 


150 


1 


63 




1 


20 


2 


80 




1 


30 


3 


57 


' 15 


1 


450 


1 


86 


3 


2 


150 


2 


65 


2 


2 


100 


3 


40 




1 


50 


9 







13 


680 





92 




3 


340 


1 


96 


6 


2 


240 


2 


69 


. 1 


1 


50 


3 


98 


' 2 


2 


100 





81 


22 


7 


1,500 


1 


74 


27 


7 


2,350 


2 


70 


- 4 


2 


400 


3 


38 


3 


2 


250 


4 


69 


1 


1 


50 


5 


88 


4 


1 


400 


6 


62 



136 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Beet 



Cabbage . . . . . 



Carrot 



Cauliflower. . . . 



Celery 





JNO. 01 


No. of 


varieties 


trials 


tested 


1 


1 


4 


3 


2 


1 


2 


1 


o 


1 

J. 


1 

J. 


J. 


4. 


9 

Li 


8 


4 


72 


24 


70 


21 


40 


17 


4 


3 


5 


4 


6 


2 


1 


1 


4 


3 


«j 


Q 
O 


9 


9 

Li 


7 
< 


A 


2 


2 


46 


11 


90 


Q 


7 


Q 
o 


Q 
O 


9 

Li 


2 


1 


44 


12 


14 


rr 
/ 


lo 


lU 


n 

y 


b 


1 


1 


11 


5 


9 


3 


. 1 


1 



Total J>o, 




of seeds 


Age in 


tested 


years 


50 


7 


300 


9 


200 


10 


100 


12 


900 

Li\}\J 


xo 




14. 


4-00 




800 





6,750 


1 


5,200 


2 


3,100 


3 


400 


4 


500 


6 


600 


7 


100 


8 


400 


10 


'lOO 


1 1 


900 


xu 


700 


1 7 

X 1 


150 





4,600 


1 


900 


o 

Li 


700 


Q 
O 


^00 


4. 


200 





4,400 


1 


1 A C\C\ 

1,4UU 


o 


1,0UU 


o 
o 


C\C\C\ 

you 


4 


100 





1,100 


1 


900 


2 


100 


3 



Average 
per cent 
germinated 

34 
33 
14 
40 
27 
10 
18 

91 
85 
75 
59 
69 
14 

9 


14 

0.2 

6 

0.4 

48 
60 
35 
22 
7 

97 
86 
85 
62 
53 

2 

46 
23 




Longevity of Seeds 



137 



Cucumber 



Eggplant 



Endive 



Kale 



Kohlrabi 



No. of 
trials 


No. of 

V MJi. UXOO 

tested 


Total No. 

\JX. ij\D\j\X>j 

tested 


Age in 
years 


Average 

\J\jX. l^Cli L 

germinated 


' 3 


3 


300 





68 


23 


9 


1,122 


1 


85 


2 


2 


150 


2 


57 


4 


3 


108 


3 


95 


3 


2 


100 


4 


72 




1 


oU 


er 






1 


1 


DO 


"1 o 

Id 


A A 

40 


L 1 


1 


OO 


1 A 

19 


14 


8 


4 


700 


1 


50 


2 


2 


100 


3 


39 


1 


1 


A 


4: 


A a 
4d 


1 


1 


K A 


b 


OO 


o 


1 


OA A 


y 


Id 


4 


1 


400 


1 


20 


10 


3 


1,000 


2 


45 


o 


6 




o 
o 


O O 
OO 


1 


1 


1 AA 


lo 


A 
U 


2 


1 


OA A 


ly 





2 


1 


200 





97 


3 


2 


400 


1 


95 


2 


2 


200 


2 


93 


3 


1 


200 


3 


65 


1 


1 


50 


4 


lb 


2 


1 


OA A 

200 





t* A 

64 


2 


1 


"I AA 

100 


f7 
/ 


OO 


' 2 


1 


200 





88 


10 


4 


1,000 


1 


80 


3 


2 


200 


2 


76 


1 


1 


100 


3 


94 


4 


3 


400 


4 


51 


2 


2 


100 


5 


44 


2 


1 


200 


17 





. 2 


1 


200 


20 






138 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



No. of 
trials 



No. of 

varieties 
tested 



Total No. 
of seeds 
tested 



Age in 
years 



Average 
per cent 
germinated 



Leek 



Lettuce 



Melon, Music 



Melon, Water 



Okra 



r 14 


4 


1,400 


1 


57 




2 


400 


4 


15 


I 4 


2 


400 


7 


5 










80 


22 


12 


2,200 


1 


83 


37 


17 


3,694 


2 


78 


24 


13 


2,400 


3 


82 


17 


9 


1,700 


4 


64 


7 


3 


700 


5 


48 


8 


3 


800 


6 


36 


. 1 


1 


100 


9 







Q 
O 







8R 




1 


X , X — U 


1 

Jl. 


R8 


u 


4. 




o 


Q9 




1 

X 


900 


Q 
O 


77 


32 


7 


1,492 


4 


79 


" 2 


2 


200 


6 


90 


5 


2 


300 


7 


90 


4 


2 . 


200 


8 


92 


1 


1 


50 


9 


36 


1 


1 


46 


10 


85 


. 2 


1 


100 


14 


49 




1 n 


yoo 


1 

± 


Oo 


1 Q 


±1 


D±x 


9 

Li 


DO 


11 


4 


377 


3 


60 


1 


1 


25 


4 


80 


' 1 


1 


25 


6 


80 


1 


1 


100 


8 


2 


2 


1 


100 


9 


20 


4 


1 


150 


11 


8 


. 4 


1 


150 


12 


10 




1 


100 


1 


92 




1 


50 


2 


90 



Longevity of Seeds 



139 



Onion 



Parsley 



Parsnip 



Pea 



Pepper 



Radish 



No. of 
trials 


No. of 

varieties 
tested 


Total No. 
of seeds 
tested 


Age in 
years 


Average 
per cent 
germinated 


12 


5 


1,200 





77 


196 


20 


15,619 


1 


80 


93 


20 


9,200 


2 


56 


21 


12 


2,000 


3 


31 


7 


3 


650 


4 


5 


1 


1 


100 


7 





' 18 


6 


1,800 


1 


57 


Q 

6 

< 


/» 
o 






A 
OU 


A 

4: 


i 


A AA 


o 
o 


Q 
O 





4: 


AA 
OUU 


A 

4: 


1 A 
lU 


2 


2 


200 





13 


7 


5 


650 


1 


28 


- 6 


3 


386 


3 


9 


1 


1 


50 


4 





2 


1 


90 


6 







9 


812 





98 




1 


200 


1 


86 


L 66 


26 


3,588 


2 


84 


9 


9 


-893 





93 


16 


6 


1,600 


1 


65 


14 


7 


1,150 


2 


58 


11 


8 


647 


3 


41 


2 


1 


200 


4 


62 


- 6 


3 


600 


5 


19 


1 


1 


50 


6 


4. 


2 


2 


150 


8 


3 


4 




op; A 

oOU 


n 

y 


1 A 


5 


o 
o 


A A 

oUU 


1 A 

lU 


A Ct 


2 


1 


ZOU 




A 

0.0 


2 


2 


200 





71 


100 


34 


8,350 


1 


71 


36 


17 


2,500 


2 


57 


16 


8 


1,250 


3 


49 



140 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



Radish 



Salsify 



Squash 



Tomato 



No. of 
trials 


No. of 

varieties 
tested 


Total No. 
of seeds 
tested 


Age in 
j^ears 


Average 
per cent 
germinated 


' 6 


6 


350 


4 


54 


4 


3 


350 


5 


37 


2 




200 


6 


12 


i 




1 (\C\ 


n 
i 


Q 
O 








Q 
O 


1 A. 


9 






1 9 


n 
u 


' 1 




100 





93 








1 
i 


Q1 


A 

*±. 




lou 




7Q 


A 




Ann 


Q 




' 4 


2 


150 





96 


20 


8 


542 


1 


73 


16 


9 


595 


2 


76 


12 


8 


417 


3 


72 


2 


1 


100 


4 


63 


1 


i 


oU 


D 


1 n 

lU 


q 




D/ 


1 n 
iU 


D 


1 

L 1 


1 


p^n 
OU 


1 /I 
i'l 


u 


' 8 * 


7 


800 





89 


19 


10 


1,400 


1 


85 


30 


13 


2,050 


2 


89 


15 


10 


1,400 


3 


89 


9 


6 


900 


4 


83 


5 


2 


500 


5 


71 


2 


2 


200 


6 


96 


5 


4 


400 


7 


74 


12 


7 


550 


8 


76 


5 


3 


500 


9 


83 


11 


11 


600 


10 


75 


2 


2 


150 


11 


63 


4 


2 


400 


12 


86 


3 


2 


300 


13 


44 


. 4 


3 


300 


14 


74 



Preservation of Seeds 



141 



No. of 

trials 



No. of 

varieties 
tested 



Total No. 
of seeds 




Average 
Age in per cent 
years germinated 



Turnip 



6 
77 

50 
28 
30 
6 
3 
11 
2 
2 



3 

8 
19 
12 
11 



5 
3 
6 
1 
2 



95 

1 87 

2 95 

3 94 

4 79 

5 67 

6 58 

7 56 

8 65 
12 49 



2. PRESERVATION OF SEEDS 



We have seen (p. 130) that the manner of storing 
and handling seeds has much to do with their viability. 
Seeds which are to be stored should be guarded 
against the concurrence of the chief agents which 
incite germination : moisture and warmth. There 
should also be protections from insects. Except in 
the case of seeds which need to be stratified, moisture 
is the most frequent agent of destruction of germi- 
native vitality. All common garden, field and flower 
seeds should be thoroughly cured or seasoned 
before they are stored, by placing them in a dry and 
airy room. 

The importance of curing is iUustrated by the foUowing 
tests (W. S. Devol, Rep. Ohio Exp. Sta., 1886, 236): "One 
kernel was taken from midway between the tips and butts of 
each of one hundred ears of corn that had been spread upon a 
floor until well dried, then stored in boxes. When tested in May, 
every kernel (100 per cent) germinated. A sample was taken in 
a similar manner at the saijie time, from another hundred ears 



142 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



of the same variety, but which had been kept in the crib in 
the ordinary way. When tested in May, only 77 per cent 
germinated." Samples were taken in like manner at another 
time from fifty ears which were gathered in October and properly 
cured. Tested in March, 100 per cent germinated. Fifty ears 
of the same variety, which stood in the shock until February, 
were selected, and kernels taken. Tested in March, only 72 per 
cent germinated. The same investigator made the following 
test : A lot of twenty -five ears of corn was selected from the 
bin in the middle of December, and one kernel taken from the 
middle of each ear and tested ; 96 per cent germinated. The 
ears were then buried in loam, in a warm aspect. January 8 
a kernel was taken from each ear and tested ; 78 per cent germi- 
nated. January 21, 42 per cent germinated. March 16 and 
April 13, none germinated. In 317 tests, made by the same ex- 
perimenter, the average percentage of germination of corn cured 
"by artificial heat, by hanging the ears by husks or other means, 
so as to admit of thorough drying, or by ricking the ears or 
spreading them thinly over the floor," was 87, while of corn from 
ordinary bins and cribs, but 69.8 per cent germinated. 

The temperature which healthy seeds can endure 
depends very largely on the amount of moisture which 
they contain. Moist seeds cannot resist as high or as 
low temperatures as dry ones can. For this reason 
seed corn and many other seeds are likely to be poor 
after a hard winter. Dry turnip seeds may resist a 
temperature of 90° to 100° for five or six years. If 
seeds are laid on ice for a considerable length of 
time they usually become weak or worthless, because 
of the low temperature coupled with the absorption of 
moisture. If perfectly dry the same seeds probably 
would have resisted lower temperatures. 

Under ordinary conditions, the vegetable -gardener 
will secure best results by storing his seeds in strong 



How Seeds May be Kept 143 

paper or cloth bags in a cool and dry room. Fairly 
tight boxes are also useful. Peas, beans and corn 
should be inspected frequently for injury by weevil. 
If the seeds are attacked, pour bisulfide of carbon into 
the box or bag and close it tight. The fumes will 
kill the pests. If the quantity of seeds is large, the 
bisulfide should be placed in an open dish on top of 
the seeds, for the fumes are heavier than air and will 
settle. In samples of two or three quarts or less, 
however, this precaution is not necessary. A tea- 
spoonful of the liquid to one or two quarts of seeds 
is ample. It will not injure the seeds if it strikes 
them. Bisulfide of carbon is inflammable, and should 
not be used near a flame. 

3. TESTING OF SEEDS 

Seed tests are of three leading kinds : (1) tests to 
determine the purity of the sample as respects dirt and 
foreign species ; (2) to determine whether the variety 
is true to name or kind ; (3) to determine viability. 

Tests to determine the content of the sample may 
be of more importance than those made to ascertain 
germinative power, yet, in practice, they are compara- 
tively infrequent and valueless. These tests should 
consider two problems, (a) the determination of any 
admixture of foreign matter, as sand, stones, sticks, 
chaff, etc., and of seeds of other species of plants; 
(6) the determination of the purity of the sample 
as concerns its trueness to name and its peculiarities 
attained through heredity and environment. Neces- 



144 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



sarily, the latter tests are more difficult of determina- 
tion, as they must be made from the product of the 
plants, often requiring special and expert training on 
the part of the investigator. They have apparently 
not received the attention they deserve, largely from the 
prevalent opinion that such matters lie beyond the con- 
trol or check afforded by the tests of impartial investiga- 
tors, an opinion no doubt strengthened by the so-called 
contract printed on seed -packets to the effect that 
the seller assumes no responsibility for the contents of 
the packet. The seed dealer certainly cannot be held 
responsible for failures which may be fairly associated 
with conditions of weather, soil or method of sowing ; 
but the warranty clause could not shield him if he 
were to be negligent or remiss, or if he failed to exercise 
reasonable caution in the care and selection of his 
stock. 

Testing samples to determine the foreign matter or 
the presence of seeds of other species is performed by 
carefully examining small lots of seeds under a lens. 
The operator should have at hand for comparison 
reliable samples of the seeds of weeds and other plants 
likely to occur in any samples.* 

Tests for purity of the sample have been carefully made in 
Germany, extending over many years, especially at the famous 
"seed control" station at Tharandt, in Saxony, organized under 
the direction of Nobbe. This station, founded in 1869, was the. 
first of its kind. The percentages of foreign matter found in 
samples, by Nobbe, vary from nothing to over 80 per cent. The 



*Sainples of weed seeds, put np in bottles which are mounted in a serviceable 
case, have been prepared by Dr. B. D. Halsted, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, 
New Jersey. 



Adulteration of Seeds 



145 



average percentage of foreign matters in grass seeds was 41, in 
the aggregate of many tests. Of the 59 per cent which was true 
to name only 18.3 per cent possessed germinative vitality. The 
adulteration of seeds in many European countries has been carried 
to such an extent in times past as almost to challenge belief. 
Seeds of various weeds, which closely resemble the seeds offered 
for sale, were often freely introduced, and the whole, or the adul- 
teration, was then cooked to destroy the life of the seeds, that the 
growth of the plants might not expose the seller. Seeds of cab- 
bage or cauliflower may be adulterated with mustard seed, and 
the whole boiled or baked. Old and worthless seeds are often 
scoured, rubbed, oiled or dyed to make them appear bright and 
healthy. It has been estimated that 20,000 bushels of old and 
inferior turnip seeds have been used in London in one year for 
purposes of adulteration. In parts of Europe it is said that a 
medick (Medicago lupuUna) is grown in quantities for the adultera- 
tion of clover seed. Some years since there existed in Hamburg 
a factory which made counterfeit clover seed from quartz, using 
this material to the amount of 25 per cent or more of the 
total bulk of the seed sold. Nobbe found enough weed seeds 
in a certain sample of timothy seed to supply, if sown at the ordi- 
nary rate, twenty- four weeds to every square foot of land. Such 
wholesale and intentional adulteration has not been observed in 
this country. Grass seeds, however, have been found to be of very 
low quality in many cases, particularly those kinds not exten- 
sively used. Much of this is undoubtedly imported. Beal writes:* 
^^One of the best firms in New York sent me some seeds of grass 
which were rotten or had been cooked. At another time the firm 
was about to buy what was called Bermuda grass. The material 
consisted of the chaff or hulls of Bermuda grass, every one of 
which proved to be empty or only in flower. Not one good seed 
was found. Results almost as remarkable were obtained in exam- 
ining seeds of meadow foxtail, which were purchased of a reliable 
firm. The same, in one case, was true of Kentucky blue-grass, 
creeping bent-grass, sheep's fescue, wood meadow-grass, rough- 
stalked meadow-grass and reed canary -grass." 



*Rep. Mich. Bd. Agr. 1880, 51. 



146 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

In vegetable -garden seeds there need be little fear 
that many weeds will be introduced. Such seeds are 
sold in small quantities and they are most carefully 
cleaned. Adulterations are apparent. There is so 
much competition in the seed business that it rarely 
pays to take the risk of sending out dirty or adulter- 
ated seeds. Even if weeds were to be introduced, the 
thinning and tillage of a vegetable - garden would eradi- 
cate them. The greatest risk in the buying of seeds 
is the chance that they may not be true to name or 
that, if true to name, the particular strain may not be 
the best. If a dealer sells seeds which are true to the 
variety, he has satisfied the requirements of the law 
and perhaps of trade ; but his seeds may still be in- 
ferior to his neighbor's. There are differences within 
varieties which may make all the difference between 
profit and loss. If the grower wants to be very sure 
of his product, it is not enough that he buy seeds of 
Winnigstadt cabbage : he should know what kind of 
Winnigstadt he is buying. There is no way of test- 
ing the seed except to raise the crop. One must, 
therefore, rely on his seedsman. This he can do with 
safety if he selects a reliable seedsman and if he is 
willing to pay a fair price for his seeds. The cheap- 
est seeds may be the dearest. 

The testing of seeds for viability, or for the ability 
to grow, is preferably made in the soil under uniform 
conditions. The best place for the test is in a green- 
house, but the living-room of a dwelling house may 
answer very well. Use a ^^flat" (Fig. 45) or other 
shallow box or earthenware pan (Fig. 34) . As a rule, 



How to Test Seeds 



147 



the best results are to be attained by planting in the 
soil in conditions as nearly as possible approaching 
the normal requirements of the particular species or 
variety. A light, loose loam with a good admixture 
of sand is the best soil for this purpose. A good 
method is to place two or three inches of loam in a 
flat, wetting it as thoroughly as possible without pud- 
dling it; then cover the soil with an inch or less of 




Fig. 34. The testing of seeds in earthenware pans, 
known to gardeners as lily-pans. 



sterilized (baked) sand, in which to sow the seeds. 
The loam keeps the sand supplied with moisture. 

The inexperienced operator will usually apply too 
much water for the best results in germination. Gar- 
deners are well aware that very conflicting results may 
be secured from the same lot of seed by different de- 
grees of watering. The same remark applies to varia- 
tions in temperature. Celery, for example, gives very 
poor tests in widely fluctuating temperatures; it is also 
injured by being kept at a uniformly high temperature, 
whereas melons and beans give the best tests in a 
high temperature. 

The seeds should be sown carefully at uniform 



148 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 




depths and at equal distances apart. In order to 
gauge the depth, nail a cleat of the required thick- 
ness on a thin block (Fig. 35) and press this cleat or 

tongue into the soil to its full 
extent : the furrow will then 
be of uniform depth. The 
seedlings should be allowed 
to remain until large enough 
to, show whether they are 
likely to make strong or weak 
plants. Not every seed that germinates is worth the 
planting. The following figures show that even with 
beans, which are strong- germinating seeds, a consider- 
able percentage of the seedlings may be so weak as to 
be valueless: 



Fig. 35. Planting stick for gauging 
the depth of planting. 



Figures on eight samples of heans^ germinated in soil in a 
greenhouse, in thirteen days after 'planting 



Number of 
sample 


Seeds that 
produced 
strong 
plants 

PER CENT 


Seeds that 
sprouted, but 
did not produce 
strong plants 

PER CENT 


Total 
percentage of 
germination 


1 


84 


4 


88 


2 


92 


4 


96 


3 


84 





84 


4 


84 


4 


88 


5 


52 


16 


68 


6 


52 


4 


56 


7 


68 





68 


8 


76 


16 


92 



If one desires to know what percentage of any 
sample of seeds still retains life, he should resort to a 
sprouting test. This test is made in an apparatus in 



Germinatioyi vs. Sprouting 



149 



which all agencies are under perfect control, and the 
seeds are counted and discarded as soon as they have 
sprouted. There are various patterns of germinating 
apparatus. An incubator may be made to answer the 
requirements. Samples of seeds which give the high- 
est sprouting tests are not necessarily the most reli- 
able, for it is probable that the percentage of vegeta- 
tion, or subsequent growth, does not always bear a 
direct ratio to percentage of latent vitality. 

Germination is not completed until the young plant 
is able to support itself by its own root -hold on the 
ground. A seed may be able to sprout, and yet be so 
weak as to be worthless for planting in the soil. A 
seed which may even germinate in the soil in a green- 
house may still be so weak that if the plantlet were 
subject to the untoward conditions of the garden, it 
might perish. It is apparent, therefore, that any sam- 
ple of seed may give very different percentages of 
germination, depending on the method of making test. 
If the test were made in a machine which, like the 
incubator, has a very uniform temperature, and the 
seeds were counted and thrown away as soon as 
sprouts appeared, the percentage of germination would 
probably be very high. If the same seeds were sown 
in carefully prepared soil in a gardener^ s flat and 
placed in the greenhouse, the probability is that a 
somewhat lower percentage would be found. If the 
seeds were planted in an ordinary greenhouse bed, and 
were to receive the ordinary watering which growing 
plants receive, a still smaller percentage of germina- 
tion might appear. If the same seeds were planted in 



150 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

the open ground, the percentages would likely be 
still smaller. 

What, now, is the fair germination test for seeds? 
It is apparent that the seedsman or seed-tester cannot 
imitate the varying conditions of a garden. He does 
not know what kind of a garden the buyer has; 
therefore, he must give all the seeds a uniform condi- 
tion, and one which will show how many seeds will 
sprout under the most favorable conditions. What he 
must do is to show the greatest possibility of the 
sample, not what the sample may necessarily be 
expected to do under general garden conditions. 
Buyers often express disappointment that their seeds 
do not produce as many plants as the germination 
tests led them to expect. The difficulty was, no 
doubt, that the germination test was made under the 
most ideal conditions, whereas the planting was made 
under normal outdoor conditions. It would seem that 
if one desires to know what any batch of seed is 
capable of doing, he should make a test for himself, 
choosing fifty or one hundred seeds from the sample, 
and planting them early enough to determine the germi- 
native vitality before it is necessary to make the 
regular planting. The germination tests which are 
made by laboratory methods are of the greatest value 
in showing the vitality, vigor and the possibilities of 
any sample of seed and in the accumulation of scien- 
tific data, but people should understand that these 
tests are no guarantee of what the seed will produce 
under actual and varying conditions. The standard 
set by the laboratory sprouting test is too high for 



Germination vs. Sprouting 



151 



actual practical conditions, and therefore is likely to 
mislead. 

The following j0.gures, compiled from tests made at the 
Pennsylvania State College (Rep. Penn. State College, 1886, 162), 
indicate the differences between mere sprouting and germi- 
nation. The percentages of germination given in the first 
column were obtained from sprouting tests, while those in the 
second column, from the same samples of seeds, were obtained 
from plantings made in a hotbed. Although these figures appear 
to lessen the value of sprouting tests, it is nevertheless true 
that, in general, a high sprouting test indicates a high vegetative 
power ; but the vegetative " power is often or usually less than 



the sprouting power. 

Per cent of 
full germina- 
Per cent . tipn in the 

Plant sprouting hotbed 

Early Winnigstadt Cabbage 87 73 

Early Flat Dutch Cabbage 95 72 

Marblehead Mammoth Cabbage 96 72 

Extra Early Erfurt Cauliflower 40 30 

Henderson's New Rose Celery 9 31 

New York Improved Eggplant 24 12 

Green -Fringed Lettuce 99 52 

Yellow- seeded Butter Lettuce 99 70 

Early Curled Simpson Lettuce 99 83 

Early Boston Curled Lettuce 90 90 

Early White Turnip Radish 72 72 

Wood's Early Frame Radish 92 84 

White-tipped Scarlet Radish 98 71 

Livingstones Favorite Tomato 91 32 

Livingston's Perfection Tomato 83 71 

Cardinal Tomato 98 85 

88 74 



The following contrasts of seeds, germinated in soil in a 
greenhouse and planted in good garden soil in the open, are 
from Cornell Bulletin No. 7. The duplicate tests were made from 



152 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



contents of the same seed -packet. The seeds sown in the open 
had every chance. Rain fell every alternate day. The soil 
was loose and loamy and well drained. 



Samples 

* 


No. of germ, 
in house 


Per cent of 
germ, in 
house 


No. of germ, 
in field 
(200 seeds 
sown) 


Per cent of 
germ, in 
field 


Per cent of 
difference 


Endive, Green Curled, Thorburn (200 seeds) . 


88 


44 


53 


26.5 


17.5 


Tomato, Green Gage, Thorburn (100 seeds).. 


72 


72 


93 


46.5 


25.5 


TurniD, Ea. Six Weeks, Dept. of Agriculture 












(200 seeds) 


180 


90 


65 


32.5 


57.5 


Pea, White Garden Marrowfat, Thorburn 












(60 seeds) 


55 


91.6 


181 


90.5 ~ 


1.1 


Celery, White Plume, Thorburn (100 seeds) . 


41 


41 


22 


11 


30 


Onion, Red Wethersfield,Thorburn (200 seeds. 


148 


74 


84 


42 


32 


Carrot, Early Forcing, Thorburn (100 seeds). 


70 


70 


39 


19.5 


50 5 


Carrot, Vermont Butter, Hoskins (100 seeds). 


65 


65 


45 


22.5 


42.5 



The average experience of careful seed -growers, 
seed -merchants, gardeners and experimenters should 
give us, in time, a set of figures representing what 
may be called the normal percentage of germination. 
These figures must be the averages of years. In some 
years all seeds are much better than in others. In 
many cases the percentages of germination are much 
increased by cleaning the sample, thereby eliminating 
the weak and light seeds. Varieties of the same species 
differ in germinating qualities. As a rule, the higher 
bred the stock, the lower is the average viability. 

The following table is compiled from the actual experience 
of one of the largest American seed-houses. It represents what 
may be expected to be "good" and "fair" percentages of ger- 
mination of first-class fresh, commercial seeds, one year with an- 
other. In the case of beet and sea-kale, fruits, not seeds, are 
sown, and each fruit contains one or more seeds : therefore the 
figures are above 100 per cent. - 



Average Germination 



153 





Good 


Fair 


Artichoke ... 


80 


80 




84 


80 




95 


90 




90 


90 


Beet 


. 135 


120 to 150 




(according to variety) 


Beet, Mangels and Sugar . . 


xO\j 


900 


Brussels Sprouts 


QO 


QO 


Cabbage 




QO 




70 


70 


Cauliflower and Broccoli . . 


QO 


87 


Celeriac 




1 


Celery 


78 


7f^ 


Chicory 


70 


70 


Collards 


QPi 


QO 




QO 




Corn, Sweet 




oO 






OO 






<^0 frk 70 
OU lO / U 


Eggplant 




'^O if\ (\(\ 
UU LO DU 


Endive 


71 


70 




Q4 


QO 


Kohlrabi 


QO 


QO 




8fi 






Q^ 


QO 






OU 10 /U 






ftp* 


Mustard 


90 


90 




76 


75 




85 


85 


Parsley. . 


76 


75 


Parsnip 


71 


70 seeds 


Pea 


96 


90 




66 


60 




85 


85 




88 


85 




. 92 


90 



154 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



Good 


Fair 


80 


80 


83 


80 


200 


200 


79 


75 


80 


80 


86 


80 


94 


90 


96 


90 


81 


80 



Eye . . . 
Sunflower 
Timothy . 
Tobacco . 
Vetches . 
Wheat. . 



Good 
. 95 
. 94 
. 96 
. 78 
. 96 
. 95 



Ehubarb 
Salsify . 



Spinach . . . . .. 

Squash 

Tomato 

Turnip, Flat . . . 
Turnip, Eutabaga 
Watermelon . . . 



Good 

Barley 93 

Broom Corn 92 

Buckwheat 94 

Clover 90 

Corn 92 

Grass Seeds 70 



Since variable results are obtained under any treat- 
ment and from the same parcel of seeds, it follows 
that some check must be employed in order to reach 
reliable results. Two kinds of checks are open to 
the investigator : (1) the selection of a representative 
sample, and (2) duplicate trials. The greater the 
number of seeds used in any test and the greater the 
number of tests, the more reliable are the results. 

In choosing a sample, the contents of the whole 
package should be thoroughly mixed, particularly if the 
package has been shipped and the heavier seeds have 
settled. The seeds for trial should then be drawn 
from various parts of the package, or from its center 
if the package is small, and the various lots mixed 
and the sample for testing taken from the mixture. 



Row to Sow Seeds 



155 



4. THE SOWING OF SEEDS 

Congenial temperature and a continuous supply of 
moisture are the two requisites of germination which 
the gardener has to supply. He supplies these agents 
by placing the seeds in some loose, moist, granular 
medium, as a mealy and friable soil. If this soil lies 
on other soil, the moisture is drawn up by capillary 
attraction and as it passes off into the air it moistens 
the seeds and promotes germination. If the soil is 
very loose, open or lumpy, the capillary attraction is 
broken and the moisture does not rise to the seeds. 
Or, if it does rise, the seeds are not in intimate con- 
tact with the particles of soil and do not receive much 
of the soil moisture; moreover, the air which is held 
in the large interstices tends to dry out the seed. To 
a large extent, a continuous and uniform supply of 
moisture is a regulator of temperature. It is there- 
fore apparent why a finely divided and compact soil 
is the proper medium in which to sow seeds. 

Whenever the soil is likely to become drier rather 
than moister, as it is at the germinating season, it is 
important to firm the earth over the seeds. In large 
field operations, as in the sowing of the cereal grains, 
the roller is ordinarily used. Under market-gardening 
conditions, the soil is usually compacted by a roller 
which is a part of the seed drill and which follows 
just behind the delivery spout. When seeds are sown 
from the hand, the soil is compacted with a hoe or by 
walking over the row. Since this compacting of the 
surface establishes capillary connection with the under 



156 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

soil, thereby drawing np the water and passing it into 
the atmosphere, it is important that this condition 
be allowed to remain only until the seeds have ger- 
minated and are able to shift for themselves. The 
seeds are kept moist at the expense of soil moisture. 
Therefore, as soon as possible restore the surface 
mulch by a rake or a smoothing harrow. Seeds which 
are planted very deep, as peas, may have the soil com- 
pacted about them, and the surface layer may be 
loosened immediately thereafter, thereby preventing, 
to some extent, the escape of the soil moisture. The 
space between the rows should be kept well tilled, 
even before the seeds germinate, thereby saving the 
moisture in that area. In other words, rolling or 
compacting the soil over seeds is only a temporary 
expedient to enable them to germinate and to secure 
their own foothold ; thereafter the surface mulch 
should be maintained in order to save soil moisture. 

Seeds which germinate very slowly, as parsnips and 
celery, should be sown thick in order that the com- 
bined forces of the germinating plantlets may break the 
crust on the soil. This caution is always necessary on 
soils which tend to bake, whatever the kind of seed. 
It is well to sow a few strong and quick -germinat- 
ing seeds with those of slow- germinating species in 
order to break the soil, and also to mark the row so 
that tillage may be begun before the main -crop seeds 
are up and before the weeds have taken possession of 
the land. Seeds of radish, cabbage or turnip may be 
sown in the row with celery, parsnips, carrots and the 
like. In some cases, a crop of radish may be ob- 



Quantity of Seeds Required 



157 



tained in this way before the main crop occupies the 
land, but this is only an accidental gain. 

The cost of seed is ordinarily a trifling matter in 
comparison with the expense of the season^ s labor and 
the value of the crop. Therefore, seeds should be sown 
very freely in order to avoid the risk of failure. Even 
if five or ten times more seeds are sown than plants 
are required, the extra expenditure may be justified 
by the lessening of the risk. Another great value of 
thick seeding is that it allows of more extensive thin- 
ning of the plants ; and thinning is a process of selec- 
tion, and the best are allowed to remain. It is evident 
that the chances of securing the best are greater when 
the gardener leaves one plant out of ten rather than one 
plant out of three. The selection in the seed-bed or 
the seed -row is one of the means by which cultivated 
plants have been so greatly ameliorated or improved. 

Nearly all the recommendations of writers as to 
the amount of seed for a given length of row are 
in excess of the number of plants actually required. 
It may be that some of these recommendations are 
higher than even the risks will warrant ; but, as a 
general rule, it may be assumed that it is much safer 
to sow even the most excessive amounts than to sow 
just as many seeds as there are plants needed. 

The following tests were made by the writer in 1888 (Bull. 
40, Mich. Exp. Sta.). It will be seen that in some cases the 
recommendations seem to be extravagant ; but in the common 
run of soils and conditions, and with variable seeds and sea- 
sons, they may not be excessive after all. 

Quantity of Seed Required for Given Lengths of 
Drill. — Careful records of the quantity of seed used in those 



158 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



vegetables ordinarily sown in drills show that the quantity re- 
quired is often much less than that recommended by seedsmen. 
The following figures indicate the extent to which this is true, 
the quantities recommended being taken from Henderson^s new 
" Gardening for Profit:" 

Peas.—OnQ quart to 100 feet of drill recommended ; 850 feet 
of drill used four quarts of McLean's Advancer, or one quart to 
every 212X feet ; 850 feet of American Wonder required three 
and one-half quarts, or one quart to about 245 feet of drill ; 850 
feet of McLean's Little Gem used three quarts, or one quart for 
every 283% feet ; 850 feet of Rural New-Yorker used three and 
one -fourth quarts, or one quart for over 261 feet of drill ; 850 
feet of Cleveland's Alaska required three quarts, or one quart for 
283% feet. The following figures will show that our sowings 
were thick enough : one pint of McLean's Advancer contains 
1,600 seeds. A pint sowed a trifle over 106 feet of drill, giving 
something over fifteen peas for every foot of drill, or a plant 
every four-fifths of an inch. 

Badislies. — One ounce for 100 feet of drill recommended; 
1,000 feet of drill, sown thickly to Early Long Scarlet Short-top, 
required nine and one-half ounces of seed. In this case the rec- 
ommendation is not extravagant. 

Beets. — One ounce to 50 feet of drill recommended. Long 
Dark Blood, Eclipse and Bassano each required four ounces of 
seed for 334 feet of drill, or an ounce for 83% feet, and the sow- 
ing was much too thick. An ounce of Long Dark Blood beet 
contains about 1,300 fruits or seed, or over fifteen and one-half 
fruits to each foot of drill, as we sowed them. 

Parsnip. — One ounce to 200 feet of drill is recommended ; 
1,000 feet of drill of Hollow Crown took four ounces of seed, 
or an ounce to 250 feet of drill. The sowing was made in very 
hard ground, where a thick growth of seedlings is necessary in 
order to break the crust. The sowing was over twice too thick. 

Carrot. — One ounce for 150 feet of drill recommended ; 566 
feet in hard ground used one and one -half ounces of seed, or 
an ounce for over 377 feet of drill, and even then the stand was 
much thicker than desirable. 



Fluctuations in Price 



159 



Salsify, — One ounce is recommended for 70 feet of drill; 
seven and one-half ounces were used in 558 feet, or an ounce 
for about 74% feet of drill. In this case the estimates were 
correct. 

In order to determine what seeds fluctuate most in price 
between different dealers, a comparison was made (in 1899) of 
the catalogues of ten leading American seedsmen, with the 
following results : 

Vegetables fluctuating most in price 

Beans, wax. Celery, 

Beans, bush Lima, Corn, 

Beans, green pod. Eggplant, 

Beans, pole Lima, Peas, 

Broccoli, Pepper, 

Cabbage, Tomato. 
Cauliflower, 

Vegetables fluctuating least in price 

Asparagus, Parsnip, 

Beet, Parsley, 

Brussels sprout. Pumpkin, 

Carrot, Radish, 

Cucumber, Rhubarb, 

Lettuce, Salsify, 

Leek, Swiss chard beet, 

Muskmelon, Spinach, 

Watermelon, Squash, 

Onion, Turnip. 

Seeds ordinarily germinate better in freshly turned 
or freshly worked soil than that in which has lain for 
some time. This is because there is more moisture 
in the fresh soil than in that which has been exposed 
to the weather. We shall find in the following chapter 
that gardeners expect to secure better success in trans- 



160 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

planting when tliey can set plants on freshly plowed 
land. 

If seeds are sown in land which has received heavy 
applications of concentrated fertilizer, care should be 
taken that the fertilizer does not come into direct con- 
tact with the seeds, particularly if nitrate of soda and 
muriate of potash are used. Ordinary quantities of 
these materials sown broadcast are harmless. Caution 
should be exercised when sowing fertilizer in the drill 
with seeds : germination is often hindered. For a 
discussion of this subject, see Hicks' ^^Germination of 
Seeds as Affected by Certain Chemical Fertilizers. 
Bull. 24, Div. of Botany, U. S. Dept. of Agric. (1900). 

Roberts* has experimented on the influence of ma- 
nure-water on the vitality of weed seeds in manure 
^^by pumping and distributing over the entire mass, the 
water leached through the manure and caught in a 
cistern, and repeating the operation about once a week 
during the summer. Not a single weed seed germ- 
inated in the several samples of manure so treated, 
although placed under the most favorable conditions. '' 

The depth at which seeds should be sown depends 
(1) on the soil, as to whether it is moist or dry, well 
tilled or poorly tilled ; (2) on the species and size of 
the seed, and (3) on the season. The finer and moister 
the soil, the shallower the seeds may be sown. The 
larger the seeds, the deeper they may be sown. Seeds 
may be sown shallower in spring than in summer, 
for at the latter season the surface soil is dry. An 
old gardener's rule is to cover the seeds to a depth 



*Aniiiial Rep. President Cornell Univ. 1886-7, 73. 



Hardy and Tender Seeds 161 



equal to twice their diameter. This applies well to 
greenhouse conditions, in which the soil is very finely 
prepared and kept continuously moist ; but in the 
open ground, the seeds are usually planted deeper 
than this. 

Horticultural plants are ordinarily divided into three 
classes in respect to their hardiness: (1) hard}^ or 
those able to withstand the vicissitudes of climate in 
a given place; (2) half-hardy, or able to withstand 
some frosts or other uncongenial conditions; (3) ten- 
der, or wholly unable to withstand frost. Seeds of 
the hardy plants may be sown in the spring as early 
as the land can be made fit, or even in the fall. 
Examples of such seeds are sweet pea, onion, leek. 
In the northern states, however, very few seeds are 
sown in the fall ; but the land is often prepared in 
the fall, and the seeds are sown as soon as the soil 
is dry enough in the spring. The seeds of half-hardy 
plants, as beets and lettuce, may be sown two or three 
weeks before settled weather is expected to come — 
that is, when it is still expected that there will be 
hard frosts. Tender seeds, as beans, tomatoes, egg- 
plants, cucumbers, melons, are sown only after the 
last frost has occurred and when the ground is 
thoroughly settled and w^arm. 

Of plants which are normally transplanted, it is 
better to start the seeds in a seed-bed. These beds 
may be in the forcing -house, hotbed or coldframe ; 
or, if it is not desired to force the plants beyond the 
normal season, it may be made in the open. There 
are three chief advantages in sowing seeds in a seed- 

K 



162 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



bed, rather than where the plants are to grow : (1) It 
insures better germination, since the conditions are 
more uniform and congenial ; (2) it saves time and 
labor; (3) it enables the gardener to guard against 
insects, fungi and accidents, since plants which are 
in a compact body can be sprayed, fumigated or other- 
wise treated to advantage. In forcing- houses and 
frames, it is now a common practice to start seeds in 
flats or boxes (see page 62 and Fig. 12). 

The seed-bed should be a small area on land which 
is in the best of tilth. It should be near the buildings 
and the water supply. If the season is hot and dry, 
it may be well to shade the bed until the seedlings 
appear. The best shading ordinarily is a lath screen 
(Fig. 36) laid on a frame which stands two to three 
feet above the soil. Such a screen gives a partial 

shade and also allows 
of a free circulation of 
air ; and the screens 
may be removed and the 
bed weeded at any time. 
A covering of brush is 
sometimes used, but it 
is less handy than the 

- . ^-j- '-^''^:'^^6si£[fifffi^^-^ _u -^^^^ screen. If it is laid 

directly on beds, as is 
Fig. 36. Lath screen. somctimcs the casc, the 

The spaces and laths are equal in width. 

bed cannot be weeded 
and it is likely to become foul. Sometimes boards, 
matting or other dense covers are laid directly on the 
soil. This may do very well for a few days, until the 




Seed 'beds 



163 



seeds have begun to break the ground, but thereafter 
this covering should be removed, else the young seed- 
lings will be injured. The seedlings should always 
be given sufficient head room and light and air to 
enable them to develop to their normal condition. If 
the seed-bed is kept too wet and the seedlings are 
too soft, the damping-ofif fungi are likely to work 
havoc. Sometimes the seed-bed is made underneath 
a tree, but this is rarely advisable, since the earth 
usually requires too much watering and the shade 
may be too dense. 

If it is desired to secure a quick germination of 
seeds in a summer seed-bed, it is well to prepare the 
bed the fall before, or at least very early in the spring, 
and to keep it covered with several inches or a foot of 
well -rotted manure until needed. When the bed is 
needed, the manure is removed ; the soil is then 
full of moisture and the seeds germinate quickly. 
The fertility which has leached from the manure also 
enables the plantlets to secure an early foothold. This 
method is practiced in some of the market -gardening 
centers, particularly those in which late cabbages and 
cauliflower are grown. 

When sowing seeds in the open field, the use of a 
seed-drill should be encouraged (see Fig. 37), not 
only because it saves time and labor, but also because 
it enforces good preparation of the land. A drill can- 
not be worked in soil which is hard, dense and lumpy. 
Seed-drills, w^heel-hoes and smoothing harrows make 
better gardeners. If a seed-drill is not used, the seed- 
furrows for ordinary use may be made by drawin£f the 






Fig. 37. Types of seed-drills and planters, 
a. Model or Iron Age; 6, Planet Jr. hill and drill seeder; c. Planet Jr. drill 
seeder; d, Planet Jr. fertilizer drill, and pea and bean seeder; e, Billings; 
f, one-row corn-planter; g, Henderson corn and fertilizer drill; A, Spangler 
corn-planter, with fertilizer attachment: ?, Trne's potato-planter; j, Gem. 



Shall one Grow His Own Seeds 165 

end of a hoe handle or rake handle forcibly through 
the soil. A garden line should be used to keep the 
rows straight. Land which is planted to potatoes, or 
to other deep-planted crops, should ordinarily be tilled 
once or twice with a smoothing harrow before the 
plants are up. This maintains the .surface mulch, 
saves the moisture, and prevents the weeds from 
growing. 

When sowing in the open, wait until the ground and 
the season are ready. Rarely is anything gained b}^ 
sowing before this time. The seeds rot, or the seed- 
lings are weak. The soil must be fitted after the 
plants are up. Have every thing ready, then make the 
plants grow.* 

5. THE GROWING OF SEEDS 

"It is certainly a reflection upon a farmer to have 
his seeds to buy." "It is shameful for gardeners and 
farmers to be buying seeds that their own soil and 
climate w^ill produce, after being once furnished." 

The above sentences were written by Washington 
to the foreman of his estate at Mount Vernon in the 
years 1794 and 1795. Within a century, times have 
changed. The growing of seeds has come to be a 
business by itself, requiring expert knowledge of soils 
and climate, and of methods of handling every kind 
of crop. The demand for seeds is very large. Com- 
petition is great. The quality constantly improves. 
Plant -breeding has come to be an important factor. 

*For advice on seed sowing for greenhouses and general garden conditions, 
see Chap. 1 of "The Nursery-Book." 



166 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 

Under the present-day conditions, it is only the excep- 
tion that a man can afford to grow his own seeds. 
With the development of intensive market -gardening 
interests, seed -buyers are becoming more cautions and 
discriminating; and probably one -fourth of all vege- 
table-garden seeds are now sold to persons who grow 
the product for market. 

It is costly business to grow good seeds. It requires 
experience and the exercise of a man's undivided atten- 
tion. No longer is it sufficient merely that seeds are 
sown and that the crop is harvested. The seed- grower 
must have an ideal and must work to it. His planta- 
tions must be "rogued.'^ That is, all those plants 
which do not meet the breeder's ideal are pulled up 
and discarded, and the true or typical stock is left to 
produce the seed. The truer and higher the man's 
ideal, the better his stock should be. It requires years 
of experience to enable one to make for himself a true 
and practicable ideal of any variety of plant. He must 
know what the market wants. He must know what 
his customers want. He must know what will be good 
and useful under the greatest number of conditions. 
He must know what will be likely to be most stable 
and invariable. The ideal once apprehended, the seed- 
breeder must thereafter discard every plant which 
does not closely approach it; his stock must be uni- 
form (Fig. 38). As soon as the "roguing" or selec- 
tion is neglected, or when new ideals are introduced, 
the varietal characteristics tend to disappear or to 
change. 

Experience has demonstrated that certain soils and 



Where Seeds may he Orown 



167 



climates produce the best seeds of certain species. No 
longer are all kinds of seeds grown indiscriminately in 
one place. The price of labor is an important factor 




Fig. 38. The seed-breeders' ideal. 
A pile of Osage Orange nmskmelons from which seeds have been saved, 
showing the uniformity in the stock. 



also. Seeds which require much care and trouble in 
the growing are raised, if possible, where labor is most 
abundant and cheapest. It is no accident that radish 



168 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

seeds are grown in France, and Lima beans in Cali- 
fornia. 

Only when a man is making a specialty of some 
vegetable, and lives in the place in which the seeds 
can be produced most advantageously, can he afford 
to grow his own seeds; and even then it is a question 
whether it would not be better and cheaper for him to 
delegate the business. The man who desires to secure 
the very best results in the growing of some specialty 
should know where his seeds are grown, particularly if 
his business success depends on the crop in question. 
He should not buy his seed indiscriminatel}^ in the 
general market. There are particular strains of 
all leading varieties of vegetables which are better 
for certain markets and conditions. These strains are 
likely to be most useful in the geographical area in 
which they are bred. Seeds of these strains are often 
sold as ^huarket- gardeners^ private stock." Under 
general conditions and in other geographical regions, 
these private stocks may be of no advantage, but in 
special places and for particular purposes they may 
make all the difference between success and failure; 
and yet the differences in the resulting crop might be 
of such a character that they could not be definitely 
described in a seed catalogue or in an experiment 
station bulletin. When a man is making a specialty 
of any crop, one of the firsfc things to be done is to 
exercise the greatest care in the purchase of his seeds 
and to be willing to pay an extra price for a strain 
which will satisfy his own conditions. In the old 
time it was considered to be sufficient if one saved his 



Biiy an "Extra Supply 



169 



seeds; in the present time the mere saving is of little 
avail: he must breed his seeds. 

The gardener should buy his seeds in bulk, if 
possible, particularly if he is growing large areas and 
for a critical market. He can then demand the best. 
He will also secure the seeds at a cheaper rate. He 
should buy his seeds early. It may even be well to 
engage them of the seed dealer a season in advance, 
to be sure that he has the kind and quantity which he 
desires. Since seeds are poor in some seasons, it is 
well for him to keep at least a partial stock on hand 
from year to year, particularly^ of those kinds w^hich 
retain their vitality for several years. He is then 
relatively independent. The gardener who grows largely 
for a special market of such important crops as beet, 
carrot, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, melon, lettuce, 
radish and tomato, will do well to purchase double the 
quantity of seed which he requires for the one season, 
in order that he may Dreserve stock of the strains which 
prove to be particularly desirable. The capital which is 
thus locked up in seeds is small, as compared with the 
risk of being unable to secure a desirable strain. Buy 
direct of a reliable seed dealer and not from the 
grocery stores. 

Special care should be exercised in the selection 
of seeds of celery, onion, cauliflower, cabbage and 
squashes, for these are likely to deteriorate or to lose 
their varietal characteristics under poor culture and 
indifferent selection. Particularly is this advice im- 
perative in the case of cauliflower. There are few 
areas in which good cauliflower seed can be grown. 



170 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



and great skill is necessary to grow it well. A sample 
which sells for a dollar an ounce may be much dearer 
than one which sells for four or five times that 
amount. Very cheap seeds should awaken suspicion. 

More and more are vegetable seeds grown in 
America. Below are given the regions and countries 
in which the larger part of the best seeds which are 
sold in North America are now grown : 

Asparagus — New Jersey, New York and Michigan. 

Bean, bush— New York, Michigan and Canada, 

Bean, Lima — New Jersey and California. 

Beet — California, New York and France. 

Brussels sprouts — Long Island (New York), and France. 

Cabbage — Connecticut, Long Island, Germany and France. 

Carrot — California, Connecticut and France. 

Cauliflower— Holland and Denmark. The Danish grown is by 

far the best and the most expensive. 
Celery — California and France. 

Corn," sweet — Connecticut, New York, Michigan, Ohio and 
Nebraska. 

Cucumber — New York and Nebraska, and also Michigan. 

Eggplant— New Jersey. 

Kale— Connecticut and Long Island. 

Kohlrabi— France and Germany. 

Lettuce — California. 

Muskmelon — New Jersey and Nebraska, and also Michigan. 
Onion— Connecticut, New York, Michigan and California. 
Parsley — England and France. 
Parsnip — Connecticut and France. 

Pea — New York, Michigan, Wisconsin and Ontario, (Canada). 
Pepper — New Jersey and France. 
Pumpkin and Squash — Principally Nebraska. 
Radish — Principally France. 
Spinach— Holland and France. 

Tomato — New Jersey and Michigan, and also Iowa. 
Turnip — Connecticut, New York and France. 
Watermelon — Georgia and Nebraska. 



Yields of Seed -crops 



171 



The yields of seeds (in lbs.) which may be expected 
from an acre, under good conditions, are given below : 





When crop is 




Yield seedsmen 




as near maxi- 


A maximum 


would figure on 




mum as 20 bus. 


crop corre- 


in making con- 




of wheat would 


sponding to 


tracts for 












of good crop 


wheat 


quantities 


Bean 


600 


1,500 


500 








900 




(two years) 






Cucumber 


150 


700 


100 




125 


600 


100 


Pea 


900 


2,500 


800 


Squash, Winter . . 


100 


400 


100 


Squash, Summer. . 


100 


700 


100 


Sweet corn .... 


1,000 to 2,500 


2,500 to 4,000 


800 to 2,000 




(according to var.) 


Tomato 


100 


400 


100 


Watermelon . . . 


150 


1,000 


100 



Note.— There is no American work devoted to seeds and 
seed-growing. Brill's "Farm-Gardening and Seed-Growing" 
(Orange Judd Co.) contains brief " suggestions to seed-growers." 
Because of the scanty literature, the foregoing chapter has been 
made more extended than the nature of the book otherwise 
would have allowed. The standard work on seeds is in German, 
Nobbe's "Die Samenkunde." The seed-breeder will need the 
information contained in Jager's "Erziehung der Pflanzen aus 
Samen." 



CHAPTER VI 



SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VEGETABLE- 
GARDEN 

Tillage is the most important item in the subse- 
quent care of the vegetable -garden. If the land has 
been well fitted before the crop is put on it, subsequent 
tillage need be emplo3^ed only for the purpose of main- 
taining the surface mulch in order that moisture may 
be saved and chemical and vital activities promoted. 
This tillage may be light, rapid and easy. This light 
tillage will keep down fhe weeds. Most farmers, 
however, are obliged to fit their land throughout the 
season, because it was not thoroughly prepared in 
the beginning. 

How frequently one shall till must be determined 
by season, soil, crop, and amount of help. As soon 
as the soil becomes baked or encrusted, loosen it, in 
order to prevent the loss of moisture. As soon as the 
ground is fit after a rain, till it. If the soil becomes 
very hard and dry, it is well to till it just before a 
rain, that it may better hold the rainfall. Till shallow. 
If you are skeptical as to the value of tillage to save 
moisture, try an experiment. Till one part of the 
field thoroughly and neglect another part. The differ- 
ences naturally will be most marked in a dry season. 

(172) 



The Irrigation Question 



173 



In the cool and ambitious da^'s of spring, put the 
effort and the muscle into the land : work it into 
condition. In the long and hot days of summer, 
merely keep it in condition. 

1. IRRIGATION 

In many parts of the country, the crop is determined 
by the amount of rainfall rather than by the plant-food 
in the soil. In many cases, the crop requires more 
water than is supplied by the normal rainfall of the 
growing season. Tillage can save much of the water 
which fell in the early rains and the winter snows, 
but there may still be insufflcient moisture for a good 
crop. Irrigation may be necessary to supply the defi- 
ciency. 

In the arid parts of the country, irrigation is a 
necessity. It is a general practice. In the humid 
parts of the country — east of the plains — irrigation is 
often helpful and it reduces the risk of a poor crop. 
It is an exceptional or special practice. 

Evidently, in all regions in which crops will yield 
abundantly without irrigation, as in the East, the main 
reliance is to be placed on good tillage. Irrigation is 
an economic question. If, by irrigation, one can pro- 
duce enough better crop to more than pay the cost, 
the practice is to be advised. Too often the farmer 
thinks of irrigation as he thinks of fertilizer — as a 
means of giving him crops when he does not work 
for them. As a matter of fact, however, it is only 
the well -tilled and well -handled lands that pay for 



174 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

either irrigating or fertilizing. The in tenser the crop- 
ping, the more the capital invested, the better the 
market, the more likely is irrigation to pay. Ordinary 
crops will not pay the cost and risk of irrigation in 
the East. The feasibility of it will depend, also, on 
the lay of the land, the availability of water, the price 
and supply of labor, the character of the given climate. 

Most vegetable -gardeners in the East do not find 
it profitable to irrigate. Now and then a man who has 
push and the ability to handle a fine crop to advan- 
tage, finds it a very profitable undertaking. It is all a 
local and special problem in the humid climates. If one 
contemplates putting in an irrigating plant, he should 
visit a garden in which one is in operation, if possible. 
He should buy a special book on the subject. 

In general garden operations, the water is applied 
on the surface, in the furrows between the rows. The 
main conduits — which may be ordinary wrought-iron 
water pipes — are carried along the highest land. At 
intervals, hose -bibs are provided, so that a rubber hose 
can be attached and the water conveyed into the fur- 
rows. When box sluices are provided, there may be 
openings or water-gates opposite the furrows. If iron 
pipes are used, faucets must be provided at the lowest 
point of the run and in the sags for the purpose of 
emptjdng the pipe of water in the fall. The water 
supply must be ample, for when irrigation is most 
needed, the air is dry and hot and evaporation is 
rapid. The aim should be to convey the water in 
narrow streams or furrows close to the plants, rather 
than to cover the entire space between the rows. 



Irrigation Experience 



175 



The following notes on irrigation for the market -garden are 
by Frederic Cranefield (^^The Market Garden," April, 1896). The 
experiences are drawji from experiments made at the Wisconsin 
Experiment Station. For full information on subjects connected 
with irrigation, consult King's "Irrigation and Drainage." The 
book discusses garden irrigation. 

"It has been proved that irrigation may also be profit- 
able even during seasons of normal rainfall. It is seldom we 
get a sufficient amount of rain at the time when it is most 
needed. Rain falls alike on the just and the unjust, and 
does not discriminate between gardener A, who desires a heavy 
shower for late cabbage just set, and gardener B, who would 
like to have dry weather for a few days. Rainy summers are not 
unmixed blessings, for they are usually cool and cloudy ones as 
well. The bright, continuous sunshiny days of Colorado and 
California, with the mineral -laden waters of the mountain 
streams, produce crops that cannot be equaled in the East or 
South. The small fruit grower is even more dependent upon an 
abundant water supply at the right season than the gardener. 
Abundant rains during April will not insure a full crop of straw- 
berries in June. Moisture, and lots of it, is needed just at 
fruiting time. One acre of corn, abundantly watered just at the 
time the ears are setting, would yield as much as five acres not 
watered. 

"Not every farmer, fruit-grower or gardener, may irrigate 
profitably. On the other hand, millions of barrels of water run 
to waste every summer, which at slight expense could be di- 
rected to the adjoining parched fields. The enormous outflow 
of dozens, if not hundreds, of artesian wells in the Dakotas was 
allowed to find its way to some underground lake or river for 
years before even the slightest effort was made to utilize it. In 
almost every section of our country innumerable inches of rain- 
fall glide by our fields in brooks unchecked, that could be used 
for irrigation purposes at trifiing expense. 

"The first point to be considered is, naturally, the water 
supply. If that is abundant and reasonably accessible, other 
obstacles may be overcome. The ground level is of less im- 



176 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



portance. The profits to be derived from the work depend 
mainly upon the height to which the water must be lifted and 
the distance carried before it is applied. The question that is 
most often asked of those who are possessed of information on 
this subject, is : ^Can I depend upon a well and wind-power 
for irrigation?' The answer is ever the same. ^It all depends 
upon the well.' Professor Taft, of Michigan Agricultural Col- 
lege, has demonstrated that iU some cases, at least, it is prac- 
ticable. In * Ameli^can Gardening,' Vol. 49, pages 148-9, he 
describes wind-pumps that have been successfully used for irri- 
gation purposes. 

^^The gardener considering irrigation should first look about 
for a stream of water so situated with reference to his land that 
it may be conducted thither and distributed by gravity. Even 
if a considerable distance away, arrangements might be made 
with the owner of the water -right and neighbors to cooperate 
in the construction of ditches, etc. Such locations, it is true, 
are rare . The next best location is in close proximity to a lake 
or pond, from which water may be lifted by steam or other 
power. The most expensive, but still often practicable means 
to obtain a water supply, is by lifting from a well or wells. If 
wind power is used in any case a storage tank is almost a neces- 
sity, — not only that the wind is quite sure to fail when most 
needed, but if more than an acre is to be watered a more abun- 
dant supply of water is needed than an ordinary well can sup- 
ply. One important point in the distribution of water is to have 
a sufficient supply to cover the ground as quickly as possible. 

"At the Wisconsin Station irrigated fields are adjacent to 
and several feet above Lake Mendota. The rude plat here given 
(Fig. 39) shows the plats irrigated in the horticultural depart- 
ment. Other fields on the farm were irrigated, but only the 
garden part is considered here. The letter p in the diagram 
denotes the location of a rotary pump connected with the water 
of the lake by a suction pipe. The pump was operated by a 
threshing engine. The double lines denote the cast-iron pipe 
used to convey the water to the fields. The heavier lines are 
6-inch pipes, the others 4-inch. At each point marked is a 



Irrigation Experience 



111 



valve and riser. The water was delivered from the risers into 
distributing troughs. These are an important part of the outfit. 
They are V troughs, made of rough lumber, 12 feet long. For 
the larger troughs a 12- inch and a 10 -inch board are used and 
nailed together at right angles, and cleats nailed across the top 
every 4 feet. As the water decreases in" its onward flow smaller 
troughs may be used, made of an 8- and a 10-inch board. The 
end of one trough sets inside that of the next, and is supported 




Fig. 39. Method of distributing water. 



by stakes driven slanting into the ground and across each other. 
An iron pin placed in auger holes, bored in the stakes, serves to 
fasten them together. A cross-tie should be placed across the 
bottom to prevent the stakes from settling as the ground be- 
comes wet. The water flows from the trough through auger 
holes on one side, over each of which is attached a device for 
regulating the flow of water. It is made of galvanized iron and 
consists of two pieces. There is a hole in one piece correspond- 
ing in size to the auger hole in the trough. A slide is held in 
place by the side edges of the first piece, which are bent over. 

L 



178 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 



By the aid of these slides the flow of water may be regulated at 
will. If a row is receiving too much water the gate may be 
partially closed. Before the water is turned on, the ground be- 
tween the rows should be thoroughly cultivated and small fur- 
rows run out on both sides of the rows, plowing away from the 
row. A hand garden plow is used, and only a very slight furrow 
plowed. The plan is to run small streams of water alongside 
the rows for several hours until the ground about the roots of 
the plants is thoroughly soaked. By this means the ground is 
all thoroughly wet and not puddled. Persons without experience 
in distributing water, are inclined in the beginning to spread 
the water over the whole surface of the ground between the 
rows. This is not the best plan. The whole surface will bake 
and the soil will be puddled to the depth of several inches by 
the attendants walking over it in distributing the water. By 
the plan given above it is possible for the attendants to walk 
on dry ground at all times." 

In a more recent article (Amer. Florist, Sept. 9, 1899) Crane- 
field makes the following suggestion for the modification of the 
board trough; "Bore one -inch augur holes every few inches in 
one side and near the bottom. Directly above each hole attach a 
wooden button, slightly over an inch wide and three or four 
inches long, by means of a screw; this to be used as a gate or 
valve to control the supply of water. Place these troughs across 
the head of the field on a slight incline and admit the water at 
the upper end. By aid of these one man can attend to the wa- 
tering of a very large field." 

He continues: "Irrigated fields should be given thorough 
shallow cultivation as soon as possible, to form a mulch and 
conserve the water. By reference to the plat (Fig. 39) it will be 
noticed that two plats of strawberries were irrigated in addition 
to other grounds. The ground slopes gently towards the lake. By 
placing a row of troughs across the south and higher end of 
the south plat, water was carried alongside of the rows running 
north and south and the surplus water was run across the alley 
to the lower plat and the nursery. After the troughs were set 
up one man with a hoe was usually able to attend to all the work. 



Irrigation Experience 



179 



The south plat is one-half acre in extent. Eight to ten hours 
pumping was necessary to thoroughly wet the ground. The 
pump has a capacity of 55 gallons per minute, at 100 revolutions. 
The water was delivered through a 2X-inch pipe, under pres- 
sure. Only those who have had experience can realize what an 
immense quantity of water is necessary to soak even one-half an 
acre. 

"Not only is it necessary to have an adequate water supply, 
but it must be rapidly delivered, both for economy of labor and 
in order to do the work well. Attempts have been made to water 
garden plats by using a garden hose, allowing the water to 
spread over the ground. As a result, the ground becomes soaked 
and mortar-like to a depth of two or three feet for a short 
distance from the end next the water supply and the water does 
not move forward. In case the rows were of any considerable 
length, it would require several days for the water to reach the 
farther end. If water were delivered at the rate of 75 or 100 
gallons per minute, a much larger area could be wet to a depth 
of several inches in a few hours. The slope of the ground is a 
matter to be considered before irrigation work is taken up. It 
probably would not be possible to irrigate a very steep hillside 
by this method, although by planting with reference to watering, 
fields with considerable slope may be irrigated. 

"If a field slopes from north to south, with a slight incline to 
east or west, plant east and west and run the water across. The 
question is often asked : ^How can I irrigate a perfectly level 
field ? ' Such fields are very rare. Although a field may appear 
perfectly flat, if water were turned on it would generally be found 
that slope enough existed to carry the water across the field. 
Thorough preparation of the ground is necessary before the 
crops are planted. It is necessary to make the surface as nearly 
level as possible. It is the small dips, ravines, ^dead' furrows 
and hollows that need looking after. Shave off the surface of 
adjoining elevations to fill these, so that when the water is turned 
on, it will have a fair chance to do its work. 

"The season of 1895 was one of the driest in the history of 
Wisconsin, From May 1 to October 1 the rainfall at Madison 



180 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



was 7.43 inches. The rows of strawberries in plat B, as indicated 

in the diagram, are fifty feet in length. This plat, except sixteen 
rows at the extreme right end, was irrigated three times in 1894, 
after the crop was harvested. During 1895 the plat, with the 
exception of the sixteen rows, was irrigated May 25, June 10 and 
June 22. The crop harvested from the three series is as 
follows : 

"Twelve rows Warfield, four rows Wilson, well irrigated 
throughout 1894 and 1895, yielded 561.3 boxes. 

"Twelve rows Warfield, four rows Wilson, well irrigated 
throughout 1894 but not in 1895, yielded 111.6 boxes. 

"Twelve rows Warfield, four rows Wilson, never irrigated, 
yielded 66.2 boxes. 

"Sixty rows of Fottler^s Drumhead cabbage and forty rows 
of Henderson's Early Snowball cauliflower were planted June 
22 in plats of twenty rows. The rows were 4 rods long. The 
ground was very dry at the time of setting, so a very shallow 
furrow was run along each row and a stream of water for each 
row was allowed to flow across the fleld for several hours. After 
the ground had become sufficiently dry, the plants were set 3x3 
feet; thorough cultivation was given and the field thoroughly 
irrigated as often as needed, with the following results: 

Weight 



No. of Per cent per 100 

No. of salable of plants heads 

Cabbage — plants plants headed lbs. 

20 rows irrigated . . 421 383 90.9 899 

20 rows not irrigated . 442 347 78.5 590 

Cauliflower — 

20 rows irrigated ... 435 347 79.7 492 

20 rows not irrigated . 361 235 65.09 306 



"Although irrigation was decidedly beneficial, there was not 
as much difference as in other crops. Cabbage and cauliflower 
are strong -rooted plants, and are able to draw water from 
greater depths than many other plants. It is also possible that 
the unirrigated plats received some benefit from seepage from 
the irrigated plats, although separated by an alley of considerable 
width." 



More than - one Crop In one Season 



181 



2. DOUBLE -CROPPING 

Whenever land and equipment are very expensive, 
it is necessary that the vegetable -gardening be inten- 
sive. Capital and land should be kept at work. One 
of the means of doing this is to practice what market- 
gardeners know as double -cropping, which is the rais- 
ing of more than one crop on the land in one season. 

Double -cropping is of two species: (1) succession- 
cropping, or the growing of one crop after another on 
the same land; (2) companion -cropping, or the grow- 
ing of two or more crops together. 

Succession -cropping is a kind of short rotation. 
In selecting crops for succession -cropping, the follow- 
ing principles must be borne in mind: (1) each crop 
in the succession should be able to mature in less 
time than the whole season; (2) the tillage demanded 
by the first crop in the series should be such that it 
will leave the land in proper condition for the suc- 
ceeding crop; (3) the crops should be so much unlike 
each other that they will not tend to exhaust the soil 
b}^ demanding similar elements of plant-food, and will 
not carry diseases and insects from one crop to another. 

It is usually preferable to use crops of different 
botanical families, for by this means the fertility of 
the soil is not so likely to be impaired, and diseases 
and insects are starved in the rotation. It is well to 
follow the root -crops with fibrous -rooted surface- 
feeding crops. In some cases the succession may 
extend over parts of two years, as when strawberries 
are followed by late potatoes or cabbages. In this 



182 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



case the strawberries are set the year before the suc- 
cession-crop is grown. A crop of rhubarb or aspara- 
gus may be followed, when the crop is finally turned 
under, by a short -season crop, thereby allowing the 
cutting of the asparagus or rhubarb during its last 
season. It is usually best to follow a perennial crop 
with an annual one. When the succession -cropping 
extends into general farm operations, one or two 
entire seasons may be covered by each crop in the 
series. In this case we have a true rotation of crops, 
as that term is understood by most agricultural 
writers. The value of rotation in the vegetable- 
garden, by means of which lands are rested in clover 
or other sod crops, has already been discussed 
(Chapter III). 

FoUowing are examples of succession- crops : 

Strawberries, foUowed by main-crop cabbage or late potatoes. 
Peas, followed by cabbage, beans, tomatoes or celery. 
Onions, beans, early beets, summer squash by kale, turnip, 

kohlrabi, winter radish. 
Spring spinach, by beans and tomatoes. 
Radish and bunch onions by early cabbage or celery. 
Lettuce, by beans and tomatoes. 

Early carrots, by autumn spinach, kale, turnip, winter radish. 
Early potatoes, followed by fall cauliflower or turnips. 
Cucumber, by spinach, kale, turnip, winter radish. 
Early sugar corn, by second crop of same or autumn spinach, 

beans, tomatoes, celery. 
Early cabbage, followed by late beans (for canning), or by 

horse-radish. 
Dandelions by potatoes. 
Fall-sown spinach by strawberries. 
Kale, followed by potatoes or other main- season crop. 



Succession - crops 



183 



The following crops can be worked into succession -cropping 
schemes : 

Early f or incidental crop 

Beans, snap, Mustard, 

Beet, Onion (from bulbs), 

Cabbage, Parsley, 

Carrot, Pea, 

Cauliflower, Potato, ' 

Cress, Radish, 

Kohlrabi, Spinach, 

Lettuce, Turnip. 



Late J or main -crop 



Beans, shell and Lima, 
Beet (mostly a farm crop), 
Brussels sprouts, 
Cabbage, 

Carrot (farm crop). 

Cauliflower, 

Celery, 

Corn, 

Cucumber, 

Eggplant, 

Horse-radish, 

Kale (fall and winter crop). 
Kohlrabi (fall crop), 
Leek, 



Muskmelon, 
Okra, 

Onion (from seed), 

Parsnip, 

Pepper, 

Potato, 

Pumpkin, 

Salsify, 

Spinach (fall crop), 
Squash, 
Sweet potato. 
Tomato, 

Turnip and Rutabaga, 
Watermelon. 



In companion -cropping, or the growing of two kinds 
of plants on the land simultaneously, the following 
principles are to be considered : (1) the crops should be 
such as will mature at widely different seasons ; (2) 
one crop should be of distinctly less importance than 
the other, or be a catch crop;" (3) the crops should 
be such as will profit by the same methods of tillage 



184 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

and fertilizing ; (4) so far as possible, they should be 
of different botanical families or kinds in order that 
they may not tend to leave the soil unbalanced or to 
breed the same kinds of insects and fungi. 

It will be seen that in companion -cropping there 
is a main crop and a secondary crop. Ordinarily, the 
main crop occupies the middle part, or middle and 
later part, of the season. The secondary crop matures 
early in the season, leaving the ground free for the 
main crop. In some cases, the same species is used 
for both crops, as when late celery is planted between 
the rows of early celery. 

Following are examples of some companion -ci ops : 

Radishes with beets or carrots. The radishes can be sold 

before the beets need the room. 
Corn with squashes, citron, pumpkin or beans in hills. 
Early onions and cauliflower or cabbage. 
Horse-radish with early cabbage. 
Lettuce with early cabbage. 

"I have some methods of growing vegetables in this garden 
that I will describe. With some vegetables I have managed to 
grow two crops on the same ground in one year. Early sweet 
corn and winter squashes make a profitable combination. The 
small varieties of corn that do not shade the ground too much, 
and will be ready for market in July and August, should be 
planted. Plant the corn in rows 3 feet apart and 3 feet apart 
in the rows, and make the hills for the squashes between each 
alternate hill of corn, placing compost or well-rotted manure 
in the hills where the squashes are planted. 

"Another combination is early peas and sweet corn. I plant 
the peas as soon as the ground can be worked with a one-horse 
corn- planter, cultivate the peas until the last of May, then plant 
the corn between the rows of peas with the corn-planter. The 



Dottble - Cropping 



185 



peas can be marketed the last of June, and the ground given to 
the corn. The combination can be varied by phxnting cabbages 
or celery for the late crop. A few years ago I grew a large field 
of peas and CDrn in this way, and did nearly all the work with 
the horse planter and cultivator. 

"Early bunch onions and celery make another profitable 
combination of crops to grow on the same ground in one year. 
The onion sets should be planted very early in the spring, and 
when the onions are large enough for bunching^, they should be 
marketed and the ground planted to celery. With this intensive 
system of culture the ground should be made very rich."— PF. E. 
JenTcins, Amer. Gard. XX, 350. 

Following are remarks on double -cropping by Professor 
Thomas Shaw, in "The Market Garden," July 1895: 

A. Three-crop system. — "1. Onion sets may be planted early 
in the season and onion seeds may then be sown. In the former, 
between the rows and suitably spaced, cauliflowers may be 
planted, and later, between the cauliflowers, in the center of the 
squares, two or three cucumber seeds may be dropped. The 
onion sets may be used by taking those out first which grow 
around the cauliflowers, and these in turn may be removed in 
time to let the cucumbers develop. Midway between the rows of 
onions grown from seeds, plant radishes, lettuce, peppergrass, 
spinach or some other early relish, which will have ample time 
to grow and to be consumed before harm can come to the onions 
from tb*^ shade of any one of these crops. Then when the onions 
are well grown, turnips can be sown midway between the rows. 

"2. When sweet corn is to be grown, the spaces for the rows 
can be marked out and left vacant until the time of 'he planting 
of the corn. Between these spaces and early in the season at 
least two rows of dwarf peas may be sown. These will be 
matured before the corn will harm them or before they will harm 
the corn. Then such seeds as squashes, pumpkins or citrons may 
be put in between the hills of corn. These will cover the ground 
occupied previously by the peas, and a bean or two may be 
dropped near each corn hill. The corn stalks make supports for 
the beans as they climb. 



186 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



"3. Some kind of relish may be grown. It may be followed 
by early cabbages or cauliflowers, and these in turn by late 
cabbages or turnips, or any other kind of vegetable that may be 
grown late. These are instances wherein three crops may be 
obtained in succession the same season. 

AA. Two-crop system. — "1. Peas of the dwarf varieties may 
be grown in rows. Tomatoes suitably spaced may be planted 
between these, and before the shade of the tomatoes injures the 
peas, the latter will have been used in allaying the appetites of 
hungry people. 

"2. Early potatoes may be grown, followed by cabbages, 
turnips or winter radishes, and, if desired, some early relish 
may be grown between the rows of early potatoes. 

"3. Some early crop may be grown midway between the 
rows of beets and carrots. As to the distance between the rows, 
much will depend on the character of the soil. The richer the 
soil, the wider apart should be the rows. About 15 inches 
between the rows of onions, carrots and dwarf peas may be 
considered average distances. By planting these in succession, 
two and three crops in a season may be obtained, and without 
irrigation, on the same piece of land. These crops will grow side 
by side like brothers without injuring one another, as men often 
do. If the later crop should grow a little too fast for the one 
previously sown, just nip off some of the outer leaves that pro- 
trude too far, and both crops will manifest their thanks by 
making a good growth. 

AAA. Two-crop and three-crop system with horse tillage, — 
"Some instances may now be given of growing two crops in mar- 
ket-gardens where much of the labor is done by horses, and where, 
in consequence, the crops should not be crowded as to distance. 

"1. Any kind of an early crop, as radishes, may be grown, to 
be followed by late potatoes, cabbages or turnips. 

"2. Field peas can be sown early, to be followed by cab- 
bages or celery or some other suitable crop. Early corn or 
potatoes may be removed, to be followed by cabbages or turnips, 
and between the rows of the corn these crops may be planted 
before the former has completed its maturity. Three crops may 



Principles of Transplanting 



187 



be obtained in a favorable season, as, for instance, a crop of 
radishes, followed by early cabbages, and these in turn by field 
roots, such as turnips. But in market -gardens it is usually more 
economical to remove the one crop before the crop which is to 
succeed it has been sown. The preparing of the land by horse 
labor is thus more easily done. Other successions of crops will 
occur to those engaged in the work as being more or less 
suitable to the conditions which they have to face." 

3. TRANSPLANTING 

The first consideration in successful transplanting 
is to have good plants. They should be well grown. 
Plants which are thin, slender and soft will nearly 
always collapse or suffer when they are exposed to 
field conditions. If they come from hotbeds or forc- 
ing-houses, they should have been hardened -off either 
in the hotbed itself or by transference to cold-frames. 
If the plants have been transplanted two or three 
times in the seed-bed, they will suffer less when they 
are put in the open field. Consult pp. 72-79. 

The second consideration is to have the land in 
prime condition. It should be in fine tilth and 
thoroughly and deeply worked. Plants live better when 
they are transplanted into newly turned land. Such 
land is moist. The plants quickly secure a foothold. 

Transplanting is more successful and is employed 
to a larger extent in the humid climates east of the 
great lakes than in the West. In fact, in the more 
arid parts of the country it is usually discouraged, 
and it is recommended that seeds be sown where the 
plants are to stand. 



188 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

The ideal time to transplant is just before a rain. 
Just after a rain is also a good time, particularly if 
the weather comes off cloud3^ Cool and cloudj^ days 
should be chosen if possible. When it is necesj^ary 
to transplant in hot and dry weather, the late after- 
noon or evening should be chosen, if possible, in order 
that the plants may have time to straighten up during 
the night. When, however, the land is thoroughly 
prepared and the plants are well grown and not too 
large, there will be little difficulty in transplanting 
throughout the day. If the season is very dry, the 
plants may be watered. It is a common practice to 
have a boy follow with a pail and put a dipperful of 
water about each plant. Or, in larger operations, a 
tank on wheels is drawn through the fields. After the 
water soaks away, the dry loose earth should be 
drawn about the plant to afford a surface mulch and 
to prevent the soil from baking. Transplanting ma- 
chines drawn by horses are now becoming popular for 
large-area practices, and these are supplied with a 
watering device. In small gardens, it is practicable 
to shade the plants for a day or two by setting a 
shingle on the south side of them, letting it slant 
over the plant. 

When transplanting, the plants must be kept away 
from the sun when they are out of the ground, and 
they should also be kept wet. It is nearly as essential 
to wet the tops as the roots. The roots are wet to 
prevent them from dying. The tops are wet to pre- 
vent transpiration or evaporation of moisture. Pud- 
dling, or dipping the roots in mud, is sometimes 



Row to Transplant 



189 




Fig. 40. Dibbers. 



advised as a protection, but it is less useful with 
small plants than with trees, because the fine roots 
are matted together by the operation. When trans- 
planting by hand, it is customary to have a boy carry 
the plants in a covered basket or 
box, and to drop them just ahead of 
the planters. One boy ordinarily 
will drop for two rows of planters. 
The boy should not drop faster 
than the plants are required by the 
workmen. 

Set the plants deep. Gardeners usually prefer to 
set them to the seed-leaf, even though they were an 
inch or two higher than this in the original seed-bed. 
This deep planting holds the plants in position and 

places the roots in the moist and 
cool earth. Press the earth firmly 
about the roots and the crown: this 
is very important. The best tool 
for opening the land is a dibber 
(Fig. 40), which makes a hole, but 
does not remove the earth. In the 
working hand hold the dibber; in 
the other hand, hold the plant; the 
plant is lowered into the hole made 
by the dibber, and both hands are 
Fig. 41. The dibber and ^j^^^ presscd tightly about the plant 

how to use it. i • i t • . 

as the earth is closed against it. 
Sometimes the dibber is thrust alongside the plant 
and the hole filled by pressing the earth against it 
(Fig. 41). If the plants are rather large, and par- 




190 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



ticularly if they have not been transplanted before, it 
• is well to cut off a part of the foliage in order to 
hinder evaporation. One -half or one -third of the 
top may be twisted or cut off with very good results 

(Fig. 42). 



^^J hand- transplanting devices which 

Fig. 42. siiowing how much rcmovc a large body of earth 



tools are useful for small areas or for amateur work, 
but they are not adapted to general field operations. 
They require too much labor and time. They are not 
expeditious. Lately, however, machines for aiding 
transplanting by hand have come into use, and are 
often very satisfactory. 

Some kinds of plants, of which melons and cucum- 
bers are examples, do not transplant readily. It is 
customary to start these in boxes, pots or on the bot- 




/ machines drawn by horses have 
become popular for the planting 
of cabbages, tomatoes and other 
large-area crops (Fig. 43). If 
the plants are well grown and 
of the right size, these machines 
work very satisfactorily. They 
not only expedite and lessen 
labor, but the plants are more 
likely to live than when trans- 
planted in the ordinary way. 
There are also various kinds of 



Of late years, transplanting 



of the top may be removed 
in transplanting. 



with the plant and drop it into 
a hole of similar size. These 



Transplanting Devices 



toms of hard sods, 
the field with the 
suffer in the removal. 
There are various kinds 
of transplanting boxes 
in the market. Some 
melon growers use the 
ordinary splint pint or 
quart berry baskets, 
which can be bought 
very cheap. Others use 
paper oyster buckets. A 
common device in at 
least one of the melon - 
growing regions is shown 
in Fig. 44. It is a mere 
band or strip of basket- 
splint which is tacked 
together at the ends and 
has neither top nor bot- 
tom. The material is 
cut at a basket -factory, 



The plants can then be taken to 
earth intact, and they will not 




Fig. 43. Transplanting machines. 
The upper one is the Bemis; and the lower ones the Tiger, 
(See pages 190, 193-4.) 



192 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



at an expense, in the flat, of about 85 cents per thou- 
sand. These forms are nested in the hotbed or cold- 
frame, filled with earth, and four or five seeds planted 
in each. They are readily moved by running* a spade, 
flat trowel or shingle under them. A box will make a 
hill of plants. If one has a greenhouse equipment, he 
may use 2-inch or 3-inch pots (Fig. 45) ; but unless he 



plants thrive; but they will hold their shape for a 
month or more (Fig. 45). Old tin fruit-cans are some- 
times used for this purpose. The cans are thrown 
into a fire, when the tops and bottoms melt off, and 
the sides are then fastened together with a tack or a 
bit of wire and are used as forms in which to grow 
plants. One difficulty with them is that they are too 
large and take up too much room. They are rela- 




Fig. 44. Form in which to start 
melons. The flat is 14 inches 
long, and 3 % inches wide, mak- 
ing a form or box 3 inches 
square and 3 % inches deep. 



has the pots on hand for 
other uses, it would not pay 
to buy for this particular 
purpose. One of the best 
ways to handle cucumbers 
and melons is to plant 
them on sods, which are 
laid bottom up in the hot- 
bed. They are cut into 
squares of about four 
inches. A little fine earth 
is sifted over and between 
them, in which the seeds 
are planted. With the heat 
and moisture of the bed, 
these sods decay and the 



Transplanting Devices 



193 



tively too deep. It is usually best to use some cheap 
splint device, as shown in Fig. 44. 

It is now customary to handle plants in flats 
(Fig. 45). These are shallow boxes about 3 inches 
deep, and of an}^ convenient size. A box 15 x 20, or 
18 X 24 inches is easily handled. These boxes may be 
made to order; but many gardeners make them from 
soap boxes, by sawing each box up into several flats 




Fig. 45. Melon plants on a sod; gardener's tiat; plants in 2-mch 
and 3 3^-inch pots. 

or sections and adding bottoms. Such a box will hold 
100 plants if they are not transplanted, or one -third 
or one -half that number of transplanted plants. From 
flats a quick man can transplant from 5,000 to 6,000 
plants in a day if the soil is light and in good con- 
dition. With a horse transplanting machine several 
times this number can be set. Ten acres of cabbage 
plants sometimes may be set in a day by means of a 
horse machine. From 20,000 to 40,000 plants have 

M 



194 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

been be set in one day. The machines are also used 
for transplanting nursery stock. 

The transplanting machine can be used when the 
ground is too dry and too hard to allow of transplant- 
ing by hand, and the plants are more likely to live. 
The machine itself does not handle the plants. A man 
drives. A plow opens a deep, narrow furrow, and 
water is dropped into the furrow. Shoes or rollers 
follow and close the furrow, packing the earth. On 
the rear of the machine sit two boys, with the plants. 
It is their business to drop plants in the furrow be- 
tween the opening plow and the shoes. By practice 
the boys can regulate the distance, and also learn just 
how to drop the plant so that it will be caught by the 
sides of the closing furrow and not fall over. A 
mechanical device guides the hand. By quick work, 
plants can be set as close as 1 foot apart. When 
conditions of soil and weather are just right, two men 
with dibbers and a boy to drop might set nearly as 
many plants as a transplanting machine, but they 
would not do the work so well. In a dry time and 
in hard ground, the machine shows its advantage at 
the best. 

4. CHOOSING THE VARIETIES 

One of the most engrossing incidents connected 
with the running of a market -garden or fruit -farm is 
the selection of varieties. There are the greatest differ- 
ences of opinion respecting the merits and demerits of 
any variety. This proves that the value of a given 
variety is not a question of principle, but of local 



What Varieties to Choose 



195 



adaptation. It is apparent that every gardener who 
has had experience with a variety is able to judge of 
its merits for his particular conditions. His experi- 
ence is a law unto him, although it may be only a 
suggestion to his neighbor. Choice of varieties is a 
local matter. Varieties must be tested for every pur- 
pose and condition. They are tested by actually grow- 
ing them under the given condition and for the given 
purpose. 

In selecting varieties, it is well to bear in mind the 
following points : 

(1) Have an ideal, or classify your own ideas; 
know what kind of a variety is wanted and what 
it is wanted for, and then select that variety which 
seems best to satisfy the ideal. 

(2) The older the variety, as a rule, the more 
reliable it is for general -purpose conditions. The 
very fact that it is old indicates that it has had 
sufficient value to enable it to persist. It may not 
be the best, however, for some special -purpose 
condition, for then a variety of peculiar or particular 
attributes is desired. The shorter the description in 
the catalogue, the greater is the probability that 
the variety is generally useful. It is only after 
varieties have been proved and have beconie staple 
that descriptions become short and tame : they do 
not need extravagant advertising. 

(3) Prove the novelties. New varieties are to be 
tested, not to be grown wholesale and for the 
general crop. The novelties are attractively adver- 
tised : such advertising is necessary if they are to 



196 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

be sold, for their merits are yet unknown. The 
advertising attracts the beginner and the person 
who desires to experiment. The novice selects the 
novelties. 

Every gardener should have a small area in the 
personal part of his grounds which he devotes to the 
testing of new varieties. He should buy a packet of 
every new variety of those vegetables in which he is 
particularly interested. He will not have sufficient 
capital at stake to be disappointed if half of them 
fail to prove worthy under his conditions and for his 
ideals. The mental quest is one of the chief delights 
in the making of experiments. If a novelty fails, the 
quest is nevertheless as keen and the fun is as great. 
An experimental plat without failures is not worth the 
having. The experiment station test will be useful in 
suggestions, but it cannot tell what varieties will be 
best for your conditions, markets and ideals. 

Now and then one of the novelties w^ill prove to 
be useful to the man who tries it. He will then en- 
large his area of it and test it on a commercial scale. 
In a year or two it may supplant some of the older 
varieties. In this way the gardener keeps abreast of 
the time and ahead of his competitor. Novelties are 
essential, for we depend on them for progress. 

5. WEEDS 

Weeds are mere incidents in good farming. They 
are the constants in poor farming. This is not because 
the good farmer spends more time killing weeds, but 



Weeds 



197 



because he tills better and manages his land more skil- 
fully. It is in neglected areas that weeds are most 
prevalent, — along the roadside, in the run-out meadow 
or pasture, in the barnj^ard or front yard, in the poorly 
tilled vegetable garden. Many farmers seem to think 
that good farming consists in killing weeds and bugs; 
but the best farming consists in not having them. Of 
course the farmer can not expect ever to be rid of these 
things, but he should think more of prevention than of 
eradication. A weed is only a plant that is not wanted. 
Horse-radish may be a weed in a potato field, and 
potatoes may be a weed in a horse-radish field. Potatoes 
are weeds in potato fields when potatoes are planted 
too thick. 

There is no royal road to weedless farming. Fol- 
lowing are some of the means of keeping weeds in 
check : 

1. Practice rotation; keep ahead of the weeds. Cer- 
tain weeds follow certain crops : when these weeds 
become serious, change the crop. 

2. Change the method of tillage. If a weed per- 
sists, try deeper or shallower plowing, or a different 
kind of harrow or cultivator, or till at different times 
and seasons. 

3. Harrow the land frequently when it is in fallow 
or is waiting for a crop. Harrow it, if possible, after 
seeding and before the plants are high enough to be 
broken by the implement. Potatoes, corn and other 
things can be harrowed after they are several inches 
high ; and sometimes the land may be harrowed be- 
fore the plants are up. 



198 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

4. Practice frequent tillage with light surface-work- 
ing tools, throughout the season. This is hard on 
weeds and does the crop good. 

5. Pull or hoe out stray weeds which escape the 
wheel tools. 

6. Clean the land as soon as the crop is harvested : 
and if the land lies open in the fall, till it occasionally. 
Many persons keep their premises scrupulously clean 
in the early season but let them run wild in the fall, 
and thus is the land seeded for the following year. 

7. Use clean seed, particularly of crops which are 
sown broadcast, and which, therefore, do not admit of 
tillage. 

8. Do not let the weeds go to seed on the manure 
piles, in the fence corners, and along the highway. 

9. Avoid coarse and raw stable manure, particularly 
if it is suspected of harboring bad company. Com- 
mercial fertilizers may be used for a time on foul land. 

10. Sheep and pigs sometimes can be employed to 
clean the weeds from foul and fallow land. Land in- 
fested with Jerusalem artichokes is readily cleaned if 
hogs are turned in. 

11. Induce your neighbor to keep his land as clean 
as you keep yours. 

Rank pigweeds and their ilk are a compliment to 
a man^s soil. Land that will not grow weeds will not 
grow crops, — for crops are only those particular kinds 
of weeds which a man wants to raise. Weeds have 
taught us the lesson of good tillage. There is no indi- 
cation that they intend to remit their efforts in our 
behalf. 



Bugs and Diseases 



199 



6. INSECTS AND FUNGI 

The vegetable -gardener may expect to be troubled 
with insects and plant diseases. Many of these 
troubles are very serious and are beyond the direct 
control of the cultivator. The gardener must circum- 
vent them rather than combat them. He must avoid 
them by means of strategy rather than kill them 
directly. Insects which feed openly on the tops of 
plants are nearly always amenable to direct treatment 
with poisons or other sprays. Of this class are potato- 
bugs and plant -lice. Those troubles which appear in 
the inner parts of plants or in their roots are not 
open to direct treatment, and in such cases the gen- 
eral management of the place must be relied on to 
keep the enemies in check. Insects and diseases are 
incidental or secondary facts in every garden planta- 
tion. The primary thing is to make the plants grow; 
the secondary thing is to keep the bugs off. 

Following are some of the means by which the 
vegetable -gardener may hope to lessen or avert the 
losses from insects and diseases: 

1. By means of rotation in crops and in methods 
of tillage. The shorter the rotation, the less is the 
liability to serious insect attacks. It is rare that in- 
sects and diseases appear suddenly in great numbers. 
They increase year by year, and in some favorable 
season prove very destructive. If the kinds of crops 
have been various, the probability is that they will 
not have gained a serious foothold, and that they 
will be held in comparative subjection. It is essen- 



200 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

tial that the crops of a rotation be of such different 
kinds that the same kinds of insects or fungi will not 
thrive on them. Wireworms are starved out by a 
short and quick rotation. If the land is infested with 
them, the best thing* to do, therefore, is to put the 
land into other crops and other uses, not to try to kill 
them by poison baits. They are usually most serious 
in those lands which have been laid down to grass for 
some time. The same thing may be said of the white 
grubs, which appear in grass lands. They are rarely 
troublesome when short and thorough rotations are 
used. 

2. If the land becomes seriously infested with any 
one pest, it is best in general to discontinue, for two 
or three years, the growing of the crop on which they 
live. This ordinarily is cheaper and quicker than to 
endeavor to destroy the pest by direct means. This is 
well illustrated in the case of the club -root of cabbage 
and cauliflower. This disease may be lessened some- 
what by thoroughly dressing the land with lime; but 
it is usually cheaper, and always more effective, to 
cease the growing of cabbage, cauliflower and turnips 
for a time, and to grow other kinds of crops on the 
land. It will usually be cheaper for a man to buy his 
home supply of cabbages than to attempt to grow them 
on land which is badly infested with either the club- 
root fungus or the cabbage maggot. 

In 1894, soil from a cabbage field which was seriously in- 
fected with club -root, was sown in the hills of a cabbage field 
at Cornell University. The soil was clay. The plants were 
ruined by the disease. In 1895 cabbages and turnips were grown 



Bugs and Diseases 



201 



on the area. Five -sixths of the cabbages were mined. About 
10 per cent of the turnips were affected, but not seriously. In 
1896 the area was fallow, with good tillage, until late summer, 
when turnips were sown. Again the turnips showed a little 
disease. In 1897 and 1898 the area was occupied by general 
vegetable crops other than cabbages, cauliflowar and turnip. 
In 1899 cabbage and cauliflower were again grown on the area, 
and they were free from the disease. The region from which the 
soil was imported still suffers from club-root; but here it was 
starved out in two or three years. 

3. Make every effort to secure strong, stocky, con- 
tinuous-growing: plants. Such plants are less liable 
to the attacks of many kinds of insects and fungi. 
Even if they are attacked, they have a better chance 
of coming through alive. Weak and soft plants are 
poor for any purpose, but they are particularly unsat- 
isfactory when they must withstand the attacks of 
insects and fungi. 

4. Destroy plants which are seriously affected, 
particularly those which are attacked by fungi. If the 
vines are thrown on the manure pile, the probability 
is that the disease will be distributed the next year 
in the manure. If the manure is very thoroughly 
rotted and composted, much of the danger will be 
averted ; but even in that case it is wise not to take 
the risk with such serious diseases as club -root, po- 
tato blight and rot, and the blight of melons, cucum- 
bers and tomatoes. In the fall, all diseased plants 
and products should be collected and burned. 

5. In infected seed-beds, use new or sterilized 
soil. Do not add to the seed-bed soil from a field in 
which diseased crops of the given kind have grown. 



202 The PrincipUs of Vegetable -Gardening 

This is good advice when one is filling the hotbed or 
the greenhouse benches. The soil in permanent seed- 
beds — as in hotbeds and houses — can be sterilized by 
heating it. W. W. Rawson gives his method of steri- 
lizing soil in which greenhouse or winter lettuce is to 
be grown : " Have two large boxes that will hold a 
cart-load each — 5 feet long, 4 feet wide and 3 feet high. 
Place in the bottom pipes laid 6 inches apart with 
holes -3 inches apart on both sides, and open at the 
ends. Connect these with the steam pipe from the 
boiler. Fill the box with soil and let on steam, with 
a pressure of 50 lbs., to one box at a time. When the 
temperature of the soil has reached 200°, shut off and let 
in to other box. Let each box stand for an hour, so 
as to thoroughly cook, then take out and put where de- 
sired to be used. Bring back soil to take place of this, 
and by that time the other box will be ready and the 
steam can be again let into the first box; then empty 
the other box. In this way two men will be kept 
busy with a horse and cart all day, if needed, and will 
sterilize 20 cart-loads." 

6. Insects and fungi can be killed. Nowadays, 
spraying is the economical means. The gardener should 
know what insects and diseases are likely to appear 
on any crop and then be prepared to fight them. 
The time to make this preparation is before the crops 
are planted. In the winter season he should secure 
his pumps and nozzles, buy the materials for the vari- 
ous mixtures, and inform himself as to what difficulties 
will be likely to confront him. He is then forehanded 
and knows immediately what to do when the trouble 



Spraying 



203 



arises. He should know when the pests are likely to 
appear. He should learn something of their habits, 
that he may know the vulnerable points. Every gar- 
dener should buy a good book on insects and perhaps 
another on fungous diseases, and then keep up-to-date 
by reading the agricultural papers and the experiment 
station bulletins. 

An essential point in the application of any spray 
is timeliness. The minute the trouble appears, the 
spray should be applied. The pest may be dispatched 
more readily at this time, and also with less expense 
of material and effort; and the plants will not have 
suffered seriously. Another important item in the 
spraying of plants is thoroughness. A bug will not 
go where poison is: the poison must be put where 
the bug is. The bug is likely to avoid the poison: 
therefore, the only safe way is to put the poison on 
every part of the plant. One thorough spraying, which 
completely covers the plant, is worth more than a half 
dozen sprayings when the operator merely sprinkles 
the tops of the leaves. Be sure that the spray is of 
the right kind and well made: then do not be afraid 
to apply it. Paris green and other insecticides, and 
even some fungicides, may be applied dry by means of 
a bellows device; but this is scarcely practicable in 
windy weather. Most persons prefer to apply both 
insecticides and fungicides in a water spray. Keep 
posted on spraying devices by sending for the cata- 
logues of manufacturers and by reading the bulletins 
and papers. 

Some of the requisites for a good pump have been 



Fig. 46. anous types of spra3diig nozzles. 
1. 2 Cyclone nozzles; 3. 4. Vermorel nozzles; 5, double Vermorel; 6, longshank 
Vermorel; 7, bordeaux nozzle; 8, undersprayer (Boekel); 9, Y for two nozzles- 
10, carnation nozzle (Gould); 12, same, with pole attachment; 11, Masson 
nozzle (Gould); 13, McGowen; 14, graduated spray; 15, 16, lilly (Rumsey); 

on' ITtJ^^^ ''''^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ' ^^ss (Fi^ld Force Pump Co.) ; 

20, 21, 22, Nixon nozzles: 23, Winkle nozzle for Bordeaux: 24, Winkle for 
Fans green. 



Fungicides 



205 



discussed on page 120. It is important that the appa- 
ratus have power. It should break up the spray and 
should drive it into every nook and crevice of the 
plant. On a pair of old wagon wheels an ingenious 



and lime, diluted with water. It is probable that the 
lime has some slight fungicidal value, but its chief 
merit is to make the material adhere to the foliage 
and to neutralize the caustic effects of the sulfate of 
copper. Bordeaux mixture may be applied with 
advantage even before the disease appears, for it 
adheres closely to the foliage and prevents the germi- 
nation—or, at least, the growth — of the spores of the 
fungi. If Bordeaux mixture is well made and well 
applied, it will adhere to the foliage for some weeks, 
particularly if it has time to set before rain falls. In 
case of serious attacks, however, it is well to spray 
every few days, because new shoots and new foliage are 
constantly appearing; and it is practically impossible 
in any one spraying to cover every part of the plant. 
Bordeaux mixture is a blue whitewash; it discolors 
the plants. If it is desired to have the foliage and 




man can construct a 
good platform for the 
mounting of a spray- 
ing rig. See Figs. 46, 
47, 48. 



Fig. 47. A good rig for potatoes. 



For plant diseases, 
the staple fungicide is 
Bordeaux mixture. 
This is a preparation 
of sulfate of copper 



Fig. 48. Types of power and tank outfits. 
Victor outfit (Field Force Pump Co.); 2. CasweU sled sprayer; 3, CasweU geared 
sprayer ; 4, wagon outfit (Morrill & Morley) ; 5, mounted barrel sprayer; 
6, Eureka tank outfit (Morrill & Morley). 



Insecticides 



207 



fruits free from discoloration, it may be advisable to 
use the ammoniacal carbonate of copper solution. 
This material is ordinarily somewhat cheaper than the 
Bordeaux mixture, but it does not adhere so long, 
and its practical fungicidal value is generally not con- 
sidered to be so great. 

It is not every kind of plant disease which is 
destroyed or averted by means of Bordeaux mixture or 
other sprays. Whenever the whole plant wilts or seems 
to be affected internally, it is probable that there is 
some injury at the root or in some part of the main 
stem. The trouble in this case may be due to root 
insects, borers or to some bacterial or other internal 
trouble w^hich cannot be reached by external applica- 
tions. In these cases the man has no recourse except 
to destroy the affected plants, and then by means of 
strategy to avoid the recurrence of the trouble. 

For insects^ arsenic and kerosene (coal -oil) are the 
leading remedies. Of insects which feed on the ex- 
ternal parts of the plant, there are two general kinds, 
so far as their manner of eating is concerned, — the 
chewing or biting insects, as the beetles and larvaB 
(worms), and the sucking insects, as the various 
scales, plant-lice and squash-bug. Insects of the for- 
mer type are dispatched by poisoning their food. 
This is usually done by spraying the plants with Paris 
green or some other arsenical poison. Insects of the 
second type comprise those which suck the juices of the 
plant and must be destroyed by some material which 
kills them by contact. Of these materials, the chief are 
the various kerosene preparations and whale-oil soap. 



208 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Insecticides 

Paris green, — The standard insecticide for all chewing or 
biting insects is Paris green. This material varies considerably 
in composition, and its price fluctuates; therefore many sub- 
stitutes are in the market. Perhaps the best of the home-made 
substitutes is the arsenite of soda and lime, which is described 
below. Since Paris green may contain more or less soluble 
arsenic, which is caustic to foliage, it is now the practice to add 
lime to it, no matter on what plants it is used. Lime also makes 
it adhere better. The ordinary strength is one pound of the Paris 
green to 200 to 300 gallons of water. On potatoes and some 
other plants, however, it may be used as strong as one pound to 
100 gallons, particularly if lime is added. If the amount of lime 
is one -half or one -third as much as the Paris green, it will be 
sufficient to satisfy the chemical reactions ; but it is ordinarily 
advisable to add as much lime as there is Paris green, in order to 
increase the adhesive properties. Paris green mixes better with 
water if it is made into a paste (by stirring it in a little water) 
before it is thrown into the barrel. If it is put into the barrel 
dry, much of it floats and does not readily incorporate itself with 
the water. For potato bugs, it is sometimes sufficient to sprinkle 
the Paris -green water on the plants ; but the best results are to 
be secured only when it is applied with a pump and fine nozzle, 
so, that the liquid is broken and driven to all parts of the plant. 

It is now customary to use Paris green in the Bordeaux 
mixture, and thereby to combat both insects and fungi at one 
spraying. The Paris green is added to the Bordeaux mixture as 
if the Bordeaux were so much water. That is, if one desires to 
use Paris green at the rate of one pound to 200 gallons, he adds 
his pound of poison to 200 gallons of Bordeaux mixture. In this 
case, of course, it will not be necessary to add lime to the Paris 
green, since the lime of the Bordeaux mixture will answer all 
requirements. Paris green is sometimes added to Bordeaux at 
the rate of eight ounces to 50 gallons. 

London purple is often used instead of Paris green. It is 
used in the same strengths and may also be added to the Bor- 



Arsenite of Lime — Kerosene 209 



deaux mixture. It is generally a more variable commodity than 
the Paris green and is not used so much as formerly. 

Arsenite of lime. — White arsenic, 2 lbs. ; carbonate of soda 
(sal soda, washing soda), 8 lbs.; water, 2 gals. 

Put all the materials into an iron kettle, which should not 
be used for any other purpose, and boil for fifteen minutes, or 
until the arsenic dissolves. Add water to replace that escaped 
by evaporation, making two gallons of the stock solution. This 
may be prepared at any time, and will keep indefinitely if put 
in a tightly corked bottle. Be sure to put the bottle in a safe 
place and label it Poison." 

To make fifty gallons of the spraying mixture but one pint 
of this stock solution is needed ; hence the formula given is suffi- 
cient for sixteen barrels (of 50 gals. each). Two to four pounds of 
stone lime are slaked and added to each barrel. If the arsenite 
of lime is used in Bordeaux, like Paris green, it will not be neces- 
sary to use lime in addition to that already in the Bordeaux. 

Kerosene and soap emulsioyi. — For insects which suck their 
food, as scales, plant-lice, and the true bugs (like the squash- 
bug), the kerosene compounds are the most popular insecticides. 
Kerosene and soap emulsion is the standard. There are several 
ways of making this, but the following is one of the best: Into 
boiling soft water (one gallon), place one-half pound of hard soap; 
when the soap is dissolved, add two gallons of kerosene (or eoal- 
oil). In order to thoroughly emulsify the ingredients, run them 
through a pump vigorously for fifteen or twenty minutes, at the 
end of which time the material should be so thoroughly emulsified 
that the liquid has a milk-like constituency. This material may 
then be diluted with water ten to fifteen times when using. If 
the emulsion is to be used on dormant trees in the winter it is 
not necessary to dilute it so much. The kerosene emulsion is 
sure death to all plant-lice and to scale insects when they are in 
their young or feeding stage. When treating plant-lice, how- 
ever, it is very essential that the application be made before the 
leaves have curled up and afforded them protection. 

Kerosene and water emulsion. — A mechanical emulsion of 
kerosene and water is a very efficient insecticide, and has been 



N 



210 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



known to be so for many years. It has not come into general 
use, however, because there has not been any device which would 
thoroughly and accurately emulsify them. Within the last two 
or three years, however, pumps have been invented which mix 
and emulsify the kerosene and water in different proportions. 
Some of these pumps are now sufficiently perfected to be recom- 
mended with confidence. It is probable that within the next 
few years these machines will be still further perfected, and the 
kerosene and soap emulsion will then pass away. The kerosene 
and water emulsion is cleaner, much more easily applied, and more 
easy to make than the kerosene and soap emulsion. It has been 
found that when the water and oil are thoroughly emulsified the 
foliage will endure without injury an emulsion which contains 
one -fourth or one -fifth of kerosene; and this strength is fatal 
even to the San Jose scale. It is always best, however, when 
applying the kerosene and water emulsions, to make the appli- 
cation on a sunny day, so that the kerosene quickly evaporates. 
Some plants are not injured by pure kerosene applied when 
the sun is shining. Recent experiments and practice have 
shown that an emulsion of water and crude petroleum makes 
a very efficient insecticide ; but the grades of crude petro- 
leum vary so much that it seems to be difficult to give gen- 
eral advice. The grower should secure the latest bulletins on 
the subject, as it is expected that considerable progress will be 
made in this direction within the next few years. 

Whale-oil soap. — An old-time remedy for scale insects and 
plant-lice is whale-oil soap. This is a very disagreeable com- 
pound to dissolve and handle, however, and it is gradually giving 
way to the kerosene emulsion, although it is a very efficient 
insecticide. It is customary to dissolve one pound of whale-oil 
soap in four or five gallons of water. One should experiment on 
a few plants, if he is using a denser strength, before he applies 
it on very large areas. Some tender plants are injured by the . 
formula given above. 

Tobacco dust is a standard insecticide and repellent for some 
insects. The striped cucumber and melon beetle is usually 
driven away if the plants are thoroughly dusted with tobacco 



Hellebore — Bordeaux Mixture 



211 



dust. The flea-beetle, which is an invidious enemy to many- 
crops, may also be repelled to a certain extent with the same 
treatment. These insects are also driven away to a great extent 
when the plants are thoroughly covered with Bordeaux mixture. 

White hellebore is poisonous to insect life, but is much less 
injurious to human beings than the arsenic compounds. It is some- 
times used on cabbages and other plants late in the season, when 
it is considered to be unsafe to use Paris green or other arsenites. 
It may be applied either dry or in water. When applied in a 
water spray, one ounce of poison is mixed with three gallons of 
water. In the dry state it may be applied full strength or diluted 
half with flour. 

Fungicides 

Bordeaux mixture, — To make 1 bbl. (50 gals.): Copper sul- 
fate (blue vitriol), 4 lbs.; stone lime, 4 lbs. 

If there is any hurry, the vitriol may be quickly dissolved in 
a pail of hot water, but it is usually better to put it in a piece 
of burlap and suspend this over night in four to six gallons of 
cold water. If only the bottom of the burlap rests in the water, 
the vitriol will dissolve quicker than if it is completely immersed. 
Always use a wooden pail for dissolving vitriol; it will corrode tin. 

It is better, but not essential, to slake the lime some time 
before it is needed for making Bordeaux, in order that it may 
become cool. If warm milk of lime is used for making Bordeaux 
there is likely to be more trouble with clogging of the nozzles. 
Only good stone lime should be used ; even a little air-slaked lime 
in Bordeaux is likely to give a mixture which will burn the foli- 
age, clog the nozzles, and wash from the trees more easily. When 
slaking a small amount of lime do not cover it with water but 
add water gradually, pint by pint, as fast as the lime takes it 
up. If lime is "drowned'^ it will often take half an hour to slake, 
when it would take but five minutes if skilfully handled. If an 
ordinary oil barrel is sawed in two the halves make very handy 
tubs in which to slake lime and dissolve vitriol. 

When ready to begir* spraying, pour the vitriol solution into 
the spray barrel and then fill the latter about half full of water. 



212 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



If not done after slaking, the lime should now be diluted to 
make ten to fifteen gallons of "milk of lime." This is poured 
into the spray barrel and unites with the vitriol solution to make 
Bordeaux. It should preferably be poured into the barrel through 
a screen of some sort to take out the unslaked lumps, which 
would clog the nozzle. A piece of wire fly screen or a double 
thickness of coarse potato burlap is excellent. Fertilizer sacking 
is too fine meshed for this purpose. It is not wise to mix the 
vitriol solution and the milk of lime when less dilute than this; 
otherwise the Bordeaux is more likely to burn the foliage and 
is lumpy. Fill the barrel with water to make fifty gallons, and 
stir the mixture thoroughly for a few minutes. If there is no 
automatic agitator attached to the pump, the mixture should be 
thoroughly stirred with a paddle while spraying at least every 
five minutes. 

Bordeaux itself should always be made fresh for each spray- 
ing, as it deteriorates on standing; but the vitriol solution and 
slaked lime may be kept on hand ready for mixing. When 
much spraying is to be done it generally saves time to make a 
stock solution of the vitriol and slake a quantity of lime before 
hand. Thus forty pounds of vitriol may be dissolved in forty 
gallons of water. Each gallon will then contain one pound of 
vitriol, and four gallons will be needed to make fifty gallons 
of Bordeaux. The stock solution of vitriol must be kept tightly 
covered to prevent evaporation. A good plan is to sink the 
barrel containing it in the ground. 

Likewise forty pounds of lime may be slaked in forty 
gallons of water and used like the vitriol; or it may be slaked 
to the consistency of putty, spread evenly over the bottom of a 
narrow trough, and covered with water to exclude air. Knowing 
the number of pounds of lime in the trough, a certain fraction 
of its area will contain the four pounds needed for a barrel, and 
this is separated off at one end when needed. 

Instead of measuring the lime it is often more convenient 
to use the ferro- cyanide test when large amounts are slaked 
beforehand. An ounce of potassium ferro -cyanide may be 
bought in any drug store, and will be sufficient for a season. 



Bordeaux Mixture— Copper Carbonate 218 



Dissolve it in a pint of water, and label the bottle "Poison." 
The needed amount of lime for making Bordeaux is then esti- 
mated, instead of calculated, ^hen taken from the stock, and 
enough is added to satisfy the ferro- cyanide test. This test is 
made by taking out a little of the Bordeaux in a small dish and 
adding to it a drop of the ferro -cyanide solution. If a reddish 
brown color appears more lime is needed, and it should be added 
until no change in color takes place. It is even wise to use 
more lime than is needed to satisfy the test. An excess of lime 
is not injurious and probably is beneficial. 

Carbonate of copper. — A good fungicide can be made by dis- 
solving copper and ammonia and then diluting the solution with 
water. This material has the great advantage over Bordeaux mix- 
ture of not discoloring the foliage or fruit. It is therefore a 
useful fungicide when it is needed to apply late in the season 
when the fruit is nearly grown, or when it is desired to spray 
plants that are used for ornamental effects. The material does 
not adhere to the foliage as long as Bordeaux mixture, however, 
and for that reason it does not retain its efficiency and is not so 
much used. The standard fungicide is Bordeaux mixture; the 
incidental one is carbonate of copper. 

The carbonate of copper may be dissolved at the rate of 
an ounce in one pint to one quart of ammonia. The amount 
of ammonia required will depend upon its strength. It is well 
to use only enough ammonia to dissolve the copper, for the free 
ammonia is likely to injure foliage. If the very strong ammonia 
can be secured (that which is known as 26° Beaume), the solu- 
tion should be diluted with seven or eight times its volume of 
water. This stock solution may be kept indefinitely in a tightly 
corked bottle. When wanted for use, it should be diluted with 
water at the rate of one ounce of carbonate of copper to eight to 
twenty gallons of water. This makes a clear, bluish liquid, which 
is as easily applied as the water itself. The addition of lime to 
make the material adhere has not been very successful. The 
carbonate of copper may be made at home by treating sulfate 
of copper with sal soda ; but unless one wants it in large quant- 
ity, it is better to buy. 



CHAPTER VII 



MABKETING AND STOEINQ 

Fully half the profits in vegetable -gardening de- 
pend on the marketing. Where there are ten men who 
can grow a product to advantage there may be only one 
who can sell it to advantage. Horticulturists have not 
yet learned the art of advertising. They are afraid to 
spend money for natty packages, attractive labels, and 
advertisements in local papers. The bases of all good 
marketing are five: (1) a good and seasonable prod- 
uct; (2) uniform grades in the marketed product; (3) 
good packing ; (4) attractive packages; (5) honesty on 
the part of both grower and seller. Given these qualifi- 
cations, the gardener need not hesitate to push his prod- 
uct and to ask the buyer to pay him an extra price. 

Other things being equal, the local market is the 
most to be desired. The grower is known, and he has 
an opportunity to establish a reputation. He can hold 
his customers year by year. All the business may be 
within his own observation. He knows what is being 
done with his products. There is a brisk demand for 
good vegetables and fruits at good prices. In any 
city of 10,000 and upwards a special trade can be 
established, particularly if the city is mature. This is 
often denied, but it is nevertheless true. If the grower 
sells his products in attractive packages, with neat 

(2U) 



Packing Vegetables 



215 



labels if need be, and properly sorted and arranged, 
and places them in the hands of an enterprising grocer 
who caters to the best trade, he will not need to 
peddle his wares. The grower for the home market 
must be sure to have his vegetables in season ; and he 
will do well, also, to provide a continuous and varied 
supply, for thereby he can hold his customers. He 
must set a standard and live up to it. These re- 
marks may not apply to those who grow things on 
a large scale, but such persons usually find special 
means and outlets for disposing of their products : 
because they have found such outlets is the reason for 
the growth of their business. 

1. PACKING 

Conditions have changed within a generation. This 
is the day of small and special packages. Every pair 
of shoes is in a special box. Formerly prices for 
vegetables were high, and the gardens were near the 
markets. Now the prices are low, and gardens are 
often a thousand miles from the consumer. Then, 
barrels and miscellaneous boxes could be used ; now 
attractive packages are often necessary to advertise the 
products, and strong ones are essential in order to 
provide safe transportation. The following extracts 
from Alfred Henderson* indicate how times have 
changed : 

"For thirty years prior to 1875 market -gardening 



♦Chapter on horticulture in Depew's " One Hundred Years of American Com- 
merce," 1895. 



216 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 

was a most profitable business in and around New 
York. Thirty years ago the New Jersey market- 
gardeners, mainly located in Hudson county, grew bet- 
ter vegetables than the Long Island men, but their 
limited area of land becoming less and less annually, 
in consequence of the inroads made for building pur- 
poses, the Long Islanders forged ahead. The Long 
Island men, however, have not had it all their own 
way, for of late years a formidable competitor has 
been met by them in the large truck -gardens of the 
South. While this competitive factor has certainly 
lessened their profits, even at the lower prices that pre- 
vail to-day there is still a fair profit in the business 
for them, certainly more than in ordinary farm crops." 
Such changes in conditions are reasons enough for a 
change in business methods of disposing of the crop. 

Packing and sorting of a crop should begin in the 
field. The better the crop is grown, the fewer will be 
the culls and the less the labor of sorting and grad- 
ing. In crops which are not to be carefully sorted into 
sizes and packed by hand, as potatoes and many of the 
root crops, the vegetables may be placed directly in 
the package in which the product is to be taken to the 
market. Nothing is better for the handliug of heavy 
products than a bushel box (Fig. 49). Formerly bas- 
kets of various sizes were used for this purpose, but 
the bushel box is much better because it is cheaper, 
more durable and it stows better on the wagon or in the 
storehouse. One tier of boxes may be piled on another, 
but this is impossible with baskets unless one resorts to 
expensive staging. 



4 

The Bushel Box 



217 



The value of the bushel box as a receptacle for the 
handling of vegetables is well set forth by Professor 
Green * as follows : In these days of close competition 
it is very important for the seller to use great care in 
the selection of a favorable package in which to display 
his goods. In the markets of St. Paul and Minneapolis 
the most common package for the display of vegetables 
is the bushel basket, and this __=^ 



solid nor so easily built up as inches deep, 
a load of the same material in boxes; (2) a bushel 
basket costs about 50 per cent more than a well- 
made box holding the same amount; (3) it seldom lasts 
more than one -third as long; (4) the goods do not ap- 
pear to such advantage in it as in a box. On the 
other hand, bushel boxes (1) may be made so as to fit 
readily into a wagon, and by the use of deck boards a 
very large and solid load may readily be put on that 
binds well together; (2) a box lasts indefinitely and is 
easily repaired, while a basket is of short duration and 
is not easily repaired; (3) a box capable of holding a 
bushel can be made much cheaper than a basket of 

♦The Market Garden, November, 1894, p. 3. 



is probably one of the poorest 
kinds in which to show off goods 
to advantage. Far better and 
more economical for the same 
purpose is the bushel box. The 
disadvantages of the bushel bas- 
ket may be briefly summed up 
as follows : (1) A wagon load 
of full baskets is not nearly so 




Fig. 49. Bushel box. 



This is the style used exten- 
sively in the Boston markets. 
Its standard valne is 10 cents. 
It is 16 inches square, and 8 
inches deep. 



218 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

the same size; (4) the box is far better for showing off 
goods. Perhaps the most desirable form for a bushel 
box for general use is sixteen inches square and eight 
inches deep, inside dimensions. The end pieces should 
be one inch thick, with a handle hole in each end. The 
sides and bottom should be one-half inch thick. This is 
the style of box commonly used in the markets of Bos- 
ton and vicinity. Such a box is there sold for about 
ten cents. A wagon for carrying such boxes to best 
advantage should be wide enough to allow of placing in 
the body of it two rows of boxes abreast and two deep. 
In building a load of boxes, when ventilation is needed 
for those in the lower tier, a short piece of wood, one- 
half an inch thick, may be laid across the upper corners 
of the corner boxes so that the second tier will rest 
upon them. The deck boards may carry several tiers of 
boxes, which will bind well together and make a solid 
load." 

In handling the products in the field and in the store- 
house, it is important that they be kept dry and cool. 
Over-ripeness and decay are then prevented. They should 
be put on the market or in storage quickly, before they 
have been subjected to unfavorable conditions of weather 
or to accidents. Some vegetables, as onions, are not 
injured by being left in the sun for a few hours or 
even days; but, as a rule, it is better to keep the 
vegetables in partial shade, particularly such as remain 
green or soft in their marketable stage. If one has any 
quantity of vegetables to handle, it is well to have a 
packing-house or shed. In this shed there should be 
tables or counters on which the sorting or grading can 



Principles of Packing 



219 



be done. If possible, this house should have a pit or 
cellar at one end in which vegetables can be kept tem- 
porarily or even stored for the winter. 

In the packing of vegetables, it is well to bear in 
mind the following essentials: (1) Pack snug. This 
is particularly important if the vegetables are to be 
shipped any considerable distance. A large part of 
the vegetables in our city markets is handled from 
ten to fifteen times from the field to the consumer. 
Vegetables that are packed snug not only bear trans- 
portation better, but they keep longer and present a 
more attractive appearance. In the better kinds of 
vegetables this snug packing is secured by placing 
each specimen by hand. (2) Pack in grades. This 
contributes not only to the appearance of the vege- 
table, but also to the snugness of packing. Vegeta- 
bles like melons, tomatoes and others that are used 
as table delicacies and accessories, are usually sold by 
the smallest specimens in the package rather than by 
the large ones. If the specimens are sorted into two 
grades, the smaller ones will usually sell as well as the 
mixed lot, and the larger ones will sell much better. 
Since the grading of vegetables is a matter of mental 
ideals, the grade varies with every packer, and it is 
therefore often difficult to secure sufficient uniformity 
to enable one to sell his products under a trade -mark. 
However, if one has uniform packages and gives close 
attention to the details of the business, he should 
be able to establish a series of grades that will be 
associated with his name in the market. (3) In the 
finer or dessert vegetables it is well to pack in some 



220 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



distinctive package or to use a trade -mark or label which 
will distinguish one's products from others. This is 
essential if one is to establish an individual reputa- 
tion and to hold customers from year to year. With 
such heavy and staple products as potatoes, beets, or 
cabbages, it is usually inadvisable to attempt this kind 
of marketing; but even with them it can sometimes 
be done. It is common to associate a special package 
with fruits, but not with vegetables; but this condition 
of affairs is wrong. (4) Pack the vegetables cool. They 
should go into the packages with a low temperature, 
rather than warm. They keep longer and hold their 
quality better under such conditions. This is particu- 
larly true of dessert and perishable products. (5) 
Pack in relatively small packages, with all the better 
kinds of vegetables. Aim, so far as possible, at special 
and dessert trade. The warmer the season, the smaller 
the quantity should be. If one is shipping green stuff, 
as cabbage, spinach and kale, the package should be 
well ventilated in order to prevent heating, particularly 
if the packages are as large as barrels. It is well 
to use open or ventilated packages for all green vege- 
tables in warm weather, at least for those that are t0| 
be shipped a long distance. 

Of all the packages in use at the present time, 
barrels are least desirable except for a staple product 
that is shipped a long distance and thrown on the 
general market. A barrel does not appeal to the indi- 
vidual consumer. Barrels also are relatively expen- 
sive. For the finer kinds of vegetables, new or gift 
packages may be used, particularly if one is aiming 



Kinds of Packages 



221 



at the special trade. This is emphatically true with 
those vegetables that need careful handling in order 
to deliver them in good condition to the consumer. 
Among such vegetables are tomatoes, cucumbers, egg- 




Fig. 50. Some of the packages in which long-distance shipments 
of vegetables are made. 

plants and muskmelons. Common commercial styles of 
packages for vegetables are shown in Fig. 50. 

The shipper should mark the packages with his 
name, and, in case the goods are sorted, with the trade- 



222 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



mark or the name of the product. The dealer is likely to 
receive consignments from many persons in one day, 
and unless the name of the shipper is on the package 




Fig. 51. A cylinder-sorter for potatoes and fruits. 

confusion may result. When an important shipment 
is made, it is well to notify the dealer in advance, either 
by wire or by letter. 

Although the sorting and grading of vegetables en- 
tail extra labor and expense, they nearly always pay if 
one desires to reach a personal customer. With certain 
kinds of vegetables, however, sorting machines may be 
used, particularly with potatoes. Some of these ma- 
chines work on the principle of a revolving sieve or 
screen through which the crop is run (Fig. 51). The 
products then drop through the mesh according to size. 
Another type of sorting machine is an inclined box or 
rack with slat bottom over which the products are rolled 
(Fig. 52). The small specimens drop between the 
slats, and the large ones roll on to the end of the box 
and are caught in a barrel or other receptacle. Com- 
pare Figs. 82 and 83. . - 

Usually the careful gardener will need a special kind 
of wagon. For use in the field he needs something in 



Market' Garden Wagons 223 

the nature of a truck with wide tires, and small wheels 
that will turn under the platform. On these platform 
wagons the boxes may be stored in two or three tiers if 




Fig. 52. A slat-sorter for potatoes and fruits. 



necessary. In nearly every great trucking center there 
is a special kind of market wagon. One of the most 
distinct of these is the kind used on the western end 
of Long Island, one of which is shown in Fig. 53. On 
the macadam roads of that section these wagons are 
often hauled twenty and thirty miles to the market. 
The teams are started in the evening or night and ar- 
rive in the New York City market by about two o'clock 
in the morning, ready for the opening of the market 
at daybreak (Fig. 54). One of these wagons weighs 
about eighteen hundred pounds. It is provided with a 
large canvas cover, which can be tied over the load. 
The wagon, with cover, and top to shield the driver, 
all complete, costs about three hundred and fifty dollars. 
One of these rigs can carry three tons of produce. In 
some parts of Long Island these wagons are loaded on 
flat ears at the railway stations and are taken into the 
markets by that means. 

In order to do the best with one's products, the 
grower must keep track of the market. If possible, he 



224 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



should visit the market. He should consult the trade 
papers. He should ask his dealer about the new ideas 
in packages and packing. Ordinarily he will be able to 
secure better information if he deals continuously with 
one reliable firm. In every way endeavor to keep up 
with the times in the selling of the produce as well as 
in the growing of it. 



2. STORING 



It is impossible to enunciate principles that will 
apply to storing all kinds of vegetables, for these 
products include fruits, roots and leaves. Some of 
them must be kept warm and some cool. Others, as 
onions and squashes, must be dry ; still others, as cab- 
bages and roots, 
must be kept moist . 
Each vegetable, 
therefore, is a law 
unto itself. With 
the exception of 
root and tuber 
crops, most vegeta- 
bles are uncertain 
in storage unless 




Fig. 53. Long Island market wagon. 
The canvas.cover is rolled on tlie pole at the rear. 



they are kept in an 
establishment that 
is cooled by artificial means, and which, therefore, main- 
tains uniformity of moisture and temperature. In gen- 
eral, it is better to sell in the fall, even at a somewhat 
reduced price, than to go to the expense and risk 



storing 



225 



of storing„ When, however, the fall market is so low 
as to prevent any profit, storing is a necessary re- 
course. Persons who have become expert in the hand- 
ling of any one vegetable may store it with relative 
safety. If one has had no experience in the storing 
of those vegetables that are difficult to keep, it is 




Fig. 54. Daylight view of Wallabont market, Brooklyn. 
The covered market is in the rear, and the open-air market in the 
foreground. In the very front of the picture is a dilapidated stone 
wall and a discarded market wagon : these are not parts of the market. 

generally better to put them in the hands of some 
one who makes a business of cold storage and pay 
him for his labor and experience. 

In general, a low temperature is essential to the 
keeping of the product. It prevents over -ripening and 
delays the work of fungi and other disorganizing 



o 



226 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

agents. Usually it is well to keep the temperature 
relatively near the freezing point ; but there are some 
vegetables, as squashes and sweet potatoes, which are 
injured by a low temperature. Products which are 
either over -ripe or markedly under-ripe usually do not 
keep well. It is essential to any success in the storing 
of vegetables that the specimens be perfectly sound 
when put in storage, and in the proper state of ma- 
turity. No doubt some of the loss in the storing of 
cabbages, for example, is due to the infection of the 
plants with the rot fungus before the heads are put 
in storage. Onions that have been seriously attacked 
by the smut or rust may not be expected to keep well, 
however good the storage. 

The following essentials apply to the storing of 
most vegetables: (1) Protect from frost. (2) Keep 
them cool in order to prevent decay. (3) Keep them 
relatively moist in order to prevent excessive evapo- 
ration and wilting. (4) Avoid a wet and stagnant 
atmosphere, as this is likely to engender rot, particu- 
larly when the temperature is too high. (5) Protect 
from heating, for heating is the natural result of the 
accumulation of nfuch fresh vegetable matter. 

For home use, it is well to store roots and tubers in 
moist sand or in sphagnum moss (such as nurserymen 
and florists use). Beets, carrots, parsnips, and pota- 
toes stored in this way will keep plump and fresh for 
a twelvemonth or more, if the temperature is kept low 
enough to prevent sprouting. The reason for this 
good result is that the sand or moss prevents evapora- 
tion and maintains uniformity of conditions. 



The Outside Cellar 



227 



The house cellar is likely to be one of the poorest 
places in which to store vegetables, particularly if it 
contains a heater for the residence. In such case it 
is likely to be too warm and too dry. The vegeta- 
bles shrivel and tend to start into growth, or to decay 
quickly. Cellars that contain much vegetable matter 
are likely to make the house unhealthy unless there is 
ample ventilation and pains is taken to pick over the 
vegetables from time to time and remove all unsound 
specimens. If the house cellar is used for the storing 
of vegetables, it is well to have a special vent or chim- 
ney. This may be a cheap board affair extending up 
the back side of the house as high as the roof. This 
flue carries off the foul and warm air, and thereby 
keeps the cellar pure and at a relatively low tempera- 
ture. In some cases an extra flue may be provided in 
the house chimney when the house is built, and the 
warmth of the chimney will cause a strong draft. 

The old-fashioned "outside cellar'^ usually gives 
better conditions for the storing of vegetables than the 
house cellar. It is likely to be quite as uniform in 
temperature, and more uniform in the moisture condi- 
tions. The "outside cellar," with various modifications, 
is used largely by market -gardeners for the storing 
of roots, leek, celery and other products that do not 
require a dry air. This cellar is little more than a 
pit sunk to the level of the ground with a gable roof 
covered with soil and sod so that frost cannot enter; 
or if the ground is likely to be moist, the pit is built 
partially above the ground. If an outside cellar is to 
be permanent, the walls may be laid of stone or brick. 



228 The Principles of Vegetable' Gardening 



If the masonry wall is lined with hollow or "lining 
brick," more uniform conditions will be secured. It 
is very important that provision be made for ample 




Fig. 55. Old-time " outside cellars " or pits. 



drainage, and also for ventilation without opening the 
main doors. This ventilation is usually secured by 
a little cupola or shaft near the center of the struc- 
ture or by windows in the gables. A vestibule entrance 
is desirable if the climate is severe. It is preferable that 
the cellar have a natural , earth bottom, providing the 
drainage, either natural or artificial, is complete. 




Fig. 56. A good outside cellar for storing green vegetables. 



A great difficulty with a permanent field or outside 
cellar is the danger of its holding so much moisture and 
being so "close' as to encourage the growth of fungi 



Duggar on Storage Pits 



229 



and thus engender decay. An investigation by Duggar* 
into the causes of the rotting of celery in storage showed 
that the disease is associated largely with poor and 
damp houses. His remarks on this phase of the sub- 
ject will apply to field cellars in general, and they are 
therefore copied here. 

After describing the old-fashioned, sod-covered, post- supported 
house, as shown in Fig. 55, Duggar proceeds : ^^The greatest difS.- 
culty with these houses is that they rot down rapidly, and they may- 
give some trouble with moisture. They are inexpensive, however. 
It may be suggested that 
in constructing root houses 
or storage houses of any 
kind the fundamental prin- 
ciples involved relative to 
the purpose of the struc- 
ture should be constantly 
considered. To continue 
its vitality, succulence and 
crispness, celery must con- 
tinue in the storage house 
a very slow growth — a 




Fig. 57. Interior of a model storage pit. 



growth sufficient to establish the roots in the soil and to complete 
the development of the inner leaves. Thorough freezing is fatal, 
but the lowest temperature at which freezing will not take place is 
most desirable. Not only does this temperature hold the plant in 
the desired condition of greatly suspended activities, but it renders 
next to impossible the growth of injurious fungi, which would 
speedily wilt and rot it. In order, then, to approach the tempera- 
ture sought, the house should be so snugly constructed as to pro- 
vide against freezing. Again, it should be so provided with ven- 
tilating appliances that at any time advantage might be taken of 
any cold intervals to rapidly and effectually chill the house, after 
which it might be securely closed for a warmer period ; and with 



*BuU. 132, ComeUExp. Sta. 



230 The Principles of Vegetable - Oardening 



this enclosed lower temperature reraain for a time at a point more 
nearly that desired. 

"In Figs. 56 and 57 is shown one of the most improved root 
houses which I have seen in operation, and the photograph here 



Fig. 58. 

Details of construction of 
a good storage house. 




reproduced was taken on the premises of Abra- 
ham Franke, Irondequoit, N. Y. With the usual 
excavation of eighteen inches or two feet, this 
structure has a brick foundation, and the roof is 
well provided with air-chambers and paper linings, affording the 
best protection against cold. The additional large air-chamber 
above the collar-beams, with its separate windows, seems also 
desirable. There are large double doors at each end, and the 



A Good Storage Cellar 



231 



space between each outer and inner door is large, and the connec- 
tions well arranged for the exclusion of cold air. It will be 
seen that Fig. 58 shows the construction of the peak and collar- 
beam {h) of the house, and also of the ventilator l)» Fig. 
59 shows the detail of the roof construction. The plate (70 is 
held firmly to the wall by a tongue (i) let into the brickwork. 
The rafter is 5. On this is a thickness of sheathing upon either 
side (a, c), with an air-space at e, and outer sheathing at and 




building paper at d and /. The cost of labor and materials is 
about $500. An interior view of this house is shown in Fig. 57. 
It was stocked with celery at the time this picture was made, 
and in spite of having been harvested early, the plants were far- 
ing well. 

"I have seen a cheaper and modified form of the above struc- 
ture, provided with a single air-chamber outside of the rafters and 
first boarding, with tarred paper covering the final layer of boards. 
The odor of tar in the house has caused comment; but if the 



232 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

house is well aired and sunned before celery is admitted, there 
seems to be no need to fear even local censure. 

The improved form of storage house which has been described 
above may be suggestive to market -gardeners who have other 
vegetable products to store for the winter markets, for in the stor- 
age of almost any vegetable product the same three essential 
features are to be borne in mind, viz: (1) protection against 
freezing; (2) a temperature so low that the activities of the plant 
may not be incited and that the growth of fungi may be discour- 
aged; and (3) proper protection against excessive moisture." 

Usually the vegetable cellar or pit is a temporary struc- 
ture. A style that is much used in parts of the northern 
states may be described as follows: On warm and well- 
drained soil (preferably sand or gravel) an excavation 
is made from one to two feet deep, usually from fourteen 
to eighteen feet wide, and of the length required in order 
to hold the crop that one has to store. The sides of the 
excavation are held by one or two planks placed on edge 
and secured by stakes driven into the ground. The whole 
pit is then covered with a gable roof made by laying 
boards from the margin to the ridge-pole. The ridge- 
pole stands three to five feet above the bottom of the pit 
and is held on stakes that are driven through the center 
of the pit lengthwise. Usually it is necessary to support 
the boards between the margin of the pit and the ridge, 
and this is done by another run or plate held on stakes 
driven midway between the side and the ridge. Boards 
about twelve feet long are now laid from the ground to 
the ridge-pole, making a continuous roof. Orjclinarily 
these boards are lapped, and the upper run is nailed 
lightly in order to hold the roof in place. The boards 
are not nailed very securely, however, for it may be nee- 



Temporary Pits 



233 



essary to use the boards the following year, and the 
subsequent covering will hold them in place. At inter- 
vals of ten or twelve feet two or three boards are left 
without nailing to allow of an entrance, and the place 
is marked by a stake driven into the ground. These 
pits are made late in the fall, and until severe freezing 
weather comes the protection of boards is sufficient ; 
but as winter approaches, straw, grass or other litter is 
thrown over the roof, and subsequently manure or earth 
is added. In pits of this character, which contain a 
large body of air, very uniform conditions are secured. 
In them celery, leek and Brussels sprouts, and even 
cabbage, may be set compactly in rows. The plants 
often will make a root-hold in the soil, and therefore 
will not shrivel and are not so likely to rot as those 
that are thrown in loose. Pits of this character are 
very useful for the storing of late or winter celery. 
In them the celery will grow somewhat, and it will 
blanch by spring. If, however, it is desired to keep 
celery only a short time, and particularly if the crop has 
been blanched in the field, another kind of house is usu- 
ally more desirable. In that case, a house which has a 
little artificial heat is usually better; and houses of this 
kind are used in the Kalamazoo celery region. These 
will be discussed when the subject of celery is considered. 

Nearly all root crops, as beets, carrots, potatoes, are 
kept over winter with ease by burying them in the 
field. It is well to choose a warm and well -drained soil. 
It is important that the pit be covered very lightly at 
first, and more covering added as the cold weather comes 
on. If the full amount of covering is applied at first, 



234 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



the products are likely to heat and decay will set in. 
Be sure that the beets and potatoes are not attacked 
by fungous diseases before they are put in the pit. It 
is customary to make a small circular or rectangular 
excavation from six inches to a foot deep and from 
six to eight feet across. In this the roots are piled 
in a tall cone. Straw or salt hay or other dry litter 
is then thrown over the pile to protect from the early 
frosts. As the season advances, an inch or two of 
earth is thrown over the straw and finally, when winter 
threatens to close in, the pile is covered deep enough 
to give full protection. Usually ten to twelve inches 
of earth over the straw will be sufficient, the straw 
itself being four to six inches thick after it is well 
matted down. In severe climates the earth may then 
be covered with a foot or two of horse manure. Ap- 
ples can be buried in this way with very good results, 
particularly the long -keeping varieties, as Russets. 

If a great quantity of roots is to be stored, the pit 
may be elongated to any length required. It is well 
not to make it much wider than six or eight feet, else 

the vegetables will be 
likely to heat and there 
...^ ...c^^^^^s^^^^-^^^^x^ may be too great pres- 
-^£2^^''''^'^^ sure on the lowermost 

Fig. 60. A compartment-pit. after each tubcrS. An eXCCllcnt 
compartment is covered. modification of the long 

pit is the compartment -pit (Fig. 60). This has narrow 
partitions of earth every four or five feet, thus prevent- 
ing the heating of the vegetables and also allowing one 
compartment to be emptied during the winter without 




The Compartment 'Pit 



235 



exposing another. Usually these compartment -pits are 
sunk two or three feet in the earth and a partition of 
soil six to twelve inches wide is left between the exca- 
vations. Each pit is then filled until it is "rounded full" 
and is covered as above described. It is often difficult 
to make these partitions hold their shape, however, 
particularly in loose and sandy soil. In such cases the 
vegetables may be heaped in several piles in a long 
pit and earth tramped in between the piles. 

Whatever the style Of pit, it is essential that the 
soil be naturally well drained, and a furrow or ditch 
should be opened around the pit to carry off surface 
water. 

Note. — If the reader desires literature on the making of a 
farm cold-storage building, he may consult Prof. F. Wm. Rane, 
Proc. 18th Annual Meeting Soc. Prom. Agrie, Sci. (Detroit, 1897), 
and press bulletin N. H. Exp. Sta., 1900. Also Bull. 84, Kan, 
Exp. Sta. (April, 1899). 



PART II 
VEGETABLE-GARDENING CROPS 

CHAPTER VIII 

INTEODUCTOBY DISCUSSION 

In considering the culture of the various crops, it 
is essential that one be able to distinguish principles 
from mere details of practice. Gardening books and 
essays are replete with rules and advice ; but after 
one has read them he may still be ignorant of the 
essential things that the given crop needs. The de- 
mands which are essential or peculiar to the crop 
should be presented at the outset ; thereafter the 
details of practice — to show how these essentials are 
secured — may be considered. From the mass of detail 
and of special and local practice, one must pick the 
kernel, — the little grain of truth that applies every- 
where and always. 

A principle is a universal truth. Under similar nat- 
ural conditions it applies everywhere. It expounds the 
reason why. It explains. Merely telling how to do a 
thing may be of little avail in a book, for if a book is 
good for anything it is read in many places and must 
apply to different conditions. One can never under- 
stand a thing until he knows the reason why. Knowing 

(237) 



238 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

this, he can work out his method; or if he cannot work 
out a method, he is necessarily the servant of some one 
who can. Most men do not rise above details. 

The main or bold facts which one needs first to know 
about a vegetable he would cultivate are these: (1) 
whether root crop, leaf crop, fruit crop; (2) demands 
as to season or climate, — cold -weather crop or warm- 
weather crop; (3) duration of its growth, — early or quick 
crop, full-season crop, catch-crop, companion -crop; (4) 
whether to be transplanted or not; (5) to be grown in 
hills or drills; (6) the special demands as to soil and 
plant-food. Knowing these things, he next inquires 
what peculiar treatments the crop demands in tillage and 
other special care, what are its enemies, and what are 
the means of harvesting and marketing. In the follow- 
ing pages an effort is made to give the comprehensive 
view when treating the different crops; details of prac- 
tice are considered to be of secondary importance to the 
object which the author now has in view and he has 
not treated them in full, although success in the cultiva- 
tion of any crop is impossible without close attention to 
these details. 

1. CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS 

The first essential in an analysis of the methods of 
cultivating the crops is a classification of the crops 
themselves. A mere alphabetical arrangement is the 
best for easy reference and for those who are looking 
chiefly for rules, but it does not contribute to an un- 
derstanding of principles. Related plants demand sim- 



Tender and Hardy Plants 



239 



ilar care: and these plants should be thrown together 
in groups. 

It is important that the intending cultivator classify 
the plant with reference to climate or season. Some 
vegetables are essentially hot -season or semi-tropical 
plants: of such are corn, tomato, cucumber, all mel- 
ons, squashes and pumpkins, beans, okra, eggplant, 
red pepper or capsicum, sweet potato. These plants are 
injured or killed by light frost. They are commonly 
classed as tender.'' They should not be set in the 
open until danger of frost is past. Other vegetables 
are cool-season or mid- temperate plants: of such are 
all root crops, potato, all onion-like plants, pea, spinach, 
all cole crops, lettuce, celery, cress, asparagus, rhubarb. 
They are classed as hardy,'' since, when properly grown 
and handled, they will withstand considerable frost. 

There are three general methods or schemes of clas- 
sifying kitchen -garden vegetables: (1) A classification 
based primarily on the uses to which the crops are put. 
The most perfect illustration of this classification is 
Loudon's {Cyclopmdia of Oardening), of which he re- 
marks: "Though no such arrangement can be absolutely 
perfect, from the circumstance of some of the plants 
being used for different purposes, yet, by bringing to- 
gether such as present most points of union something 
better than a mere alphabetical catalogue is formed." * 
This scheme, somewhat modified, is used by Burr in his 
"Field and Garden Vegetables of America," the only 
American work which has classified the subject. (2) 



♦Loudon's classification, with minor modifications, is printed on p. 268 of 
the fourth edition of "The Horticulturist's Rule-Book." 



240 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



A classification based on botanical kinships or on natu- 
ral- families. This gives the most perfect scheme, so 
far as mere classification is concerned, but it does not 
elucidate principles of cultivation. (3) A classifica- 
tion based on essential methods of culture. Such a 
scheme, although necessarily arbitrary in some places, 
I now propose. In many parts it closely parallels 
Loudon's. 

Class I. Annual Vegetables. 

Sub -Class I. Crops grown for subterranean parts. 
Group 1. EooT Crops. 
Beet, Beta vulgaris. 
Carrot, Daucus Carota. 
Parsnip, Pastmaca sativa, 
Eadish, Baplianus sativus. 
Salsify, Tragopogon porrif alius. 
Scorzonera, Scorzonera Hispanica. 
Turnip and Rutabaga, Brassica. 
Horse-radish,^ Cochlearia Armoracia. 

Group 2. Tuber Crops. 

Potato, Solanum tuberosum. 
Sweet Potato, Ipomcea Batatas. 

Group 3. Bulb Crops. 

Onion, Allium Cepa, A. fistulosum. 
Leek, A. Porrum. 
Garlic, A. sativum. 
Shallot, A, Ascalonicum. 
Cive, A. Schcenoprasum. 



* Horse-radish and dandelion are perennials ; bnt as now grown they do not 
occupy the ground more than a year. 



Classificatian 



241 



Sub -Class II. Crops grown for foliage parts. 
Group 4. Cole Chops. 

Kale aud Borecole, Brassica oleracea, 
Brussels Sprouts, B. oleracea. 
Cabbage, B. oleracea. 
Cauliflower and Broccoli, B. oleracea. 
Kohlrabi, B. oleracea. 

Group 5. Pot-herb Crops (used for "greens^'). 

Spinach, Spinacea oleracea. 
Chard and Beet, Beta vulgaris. 
Orach, Atriplex hortensis. 
Purslane, Portulaca oleracea. 
Dandelion, Taraxacum officinale. 
Mustard, Brassica species. 

Group 6. Salad Crops. 
Lettuce, Lactuca sativa. 
Endive, Cicliorium Endivia. 
Celery, Apium graveolens. 
Parsley, Carum Petroselinum. 
Cress, Lepidium sativum. 
Upland or Winter Cress, Barharea vulgaris. 
Water Cress, Nasturtium officinale. 

Sub -CI ass III. Crops grown for fruit or seed parts. 
Group 7. Pulse Crops. 

Bean, Pliaseolus. Doliclios, Vicia. 
Pea, Fisum sativum. 

Group 8. SoLANACEous Crops. 

Tomato, Lycopersicum esculentum. 
Eggplant, Solanum Melongeyia. 
Pepper, Capsicum anmam. 
Physalis or Husk Tomato, Pliysalis. 

Group 9. CucuRBiTOus or Vine Crops. 

Cucumber, Cucumis sativus. 
Melon, C. Melo. 

P 



242 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



Gherkin, C. Anguria. 
Watermelon, CitruUus vulgaris. 
Luff a, Luffa JEgyptiaca and L. acutangula. 
Zit-Kwa, or Wax Gourd, Benincasa cerifera 
Pumpkin, CucurUta. 
Squash, Cuciirhita, 

Group 10. Corn. Okra. Martynia. 

Sweet Corn, Zea Mays, 
Okra, Hibiscus esculentus. 
Martynia, Martynia prohoscidia. 

Group 11. CONDIMENTAL AND SWEET HERBS. 

Group 12. Mushroom. (Culturally and otherwise the mush- 
room is so unlike other garden vegetables that it demands 
special and separate treatment. Therefore, it is not dis- 
cussed in this hook. It is not a vegetable -gardening 
subject, although usually so classed.) 

Class II. Perennial Vegetables. 

Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis. 
Rhubarb, Bheum Bliaponticum. 
Docks, Bum ex. 
Sorrel, Bumex. 

Artichoke, Globe, Cynara Scolymus. 
Artichoke, Jerusalem, Heliantlius tuherosus. 
Sea Kale, Crarribe maritima. 

2. BOOKS 

The person who expects to secure the best results 
in crops and in the pleasure of growing them should 
be a reader. Books, periodicals, and bulletins are 
suggestive of new ideas, and a new idea is worth the 
having for the mere novelty of it. Every book has 
some value. Even if its advice is all wrong, it chal- 
lenges experiment and controversy, and thereby has 



Books 



243 



some excuse for its being. But no book is all wrong. 
More often the reader is wrong, in desiring to follow 
its details to the letter rather than to catch its spirit 
and to arouse himself to a new point of view. 

The following list gives a general view of the his- 
tory of vegetable -gardening in America. Study the 
titles chronologically from 1799 to 1900, and note the 
ways of looking at the subject. • Most of the books 
here mentioned are now valuable only as histories. 
Some of them are invaluable as practical manuals. It 
is not expected that the reader will buy any consid 
erable number of them, but the list will aid him to 
make a selection. In those which are now out of date 
and out of print he may have little interest, but it 
should be some satisfaction, at the least, to know what 
has been written and who has written it. Even if one 
cannot use this knowledge in direct practice, he should 
consider that the consciousness of knowing constitutes 
half the pleasure of living. 

Every person who would grow vegetables should . 
have two or three books which treat the general subject, 
as Greiner, Landreth, Henderson, Green, Rawson. If 
he specializes with any crop he should procure a treatise 
on that particular subject. If he lives in a peculiar 
geographical region, he will need a book written par- 
ticularly for that area, as Rolf's for the Atlantic South 
and Wickson's for California. If one desires an author- 
itative cyclopedic work on vegetables, he should by all 
means own "The Vegetable Garden " (London), an Eng- 
lish version of Vilmorin's "Les Plantes Potag5res." 
For odd and little -known vegetables the student may 



244 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

consult Paillieux and Bois' ^^Le Potager d'un Curieux," 
which, unhappily, is not rendered into English. A book 
that discusses vegetables with particular reference to 
methods of displaying them at shows is Edwin Beckett's 
Vegetables for Exhibition and Home Consumption" 
(London, 1899). Persons who are interested in grow- 
ing plants for exhibition will also find help in William- 
son and Dunn's ^^The Horticultural Exhibitors' Hand- 
book" (London, 1892), although the English ideals in 
exhibition are often unlike the American. On methods 
of exhibiting, the reader should also consult Bull. 69, 
new series, of the New York State Experiment Station, 
(1894), on Vegetables Grown for Exhibition." 

For descriptions of varieties one must rely on the 
seed catalogues and experiment station bulletins. One 
notable American book was devoted to this subject: 
Burr's Field and Garden Vegetables of America" (Bos- 
ton, 1863). It is an illustrated work of 674 pages. 
Three years later an abridgment of this work was made 
under the name of Garden Vegetables." 

Finally it may be said that the student of American 
vegetable -gardening literature will be struck with the 
lack of any sustained effort to expound principles. 

American BooTis on Vegetable- Gardening 

The following inventory of books in the author's 
library is a practically complete list of American book 
writings on vegetable-gardening subjects. It comprises 
not only those which are wholly devoted to vegetable- 
gardening matters, but also books of general gardening 



Books 



245 



that give any important part of their space to discus- 
sions of vegetables. The list does not include books on 
the forcing of vegetables. 

ANDERSON, JAMES. 
See Marshall, Charles. "An Introduction to the Knowledge and 
Practice of Gardening." 

ARLIE, C. H. 

See Greiner, T., and Arlie, C. H. "How to Grow Onions." 
BAILEY, L. H. 

Garden - Making . Suggestions for the utilizing of home grounds . 
Aided by L. R. Taft, F. A. Waugh, Ernest Walker. New 
York and London. 1898. [c. 1898.^] The Maemillan Com- 
pany, pp. vii4-417. 7x5t. [The Garden-Craft Series.] 
Vegetables by Waugh. 

—Same. Reprinted 1898. pp. vii + 417. 

— Same, 3d ed., revised, pp. viiH-417. 

The Horticulturist's Rule-Book; a compendium of useful 
information for fruit-growers, truck-gardeners, florists and 
others. Completed to the close of the year 1889. New York. 
1889. [c. 1889.] Garden Publishing Company. pp. 236. 

— Same, 2d ed., revised. Completed to the beginning of the 
year 1892. [c. 1892.] The Rural Publishing Company, pp. 
221. 7%x5. 

— Same, 3d ed., revised and extended. New York and London. 

1895. [c. 1895]. Macmillan&Co. pp.ix+302. 7x4%. 
—Same, 4th ed., 1896. [c. 1895.] pp.ix + 312. 7x4. B. [The 

Garden -Craft S.eries.] 

BARNARD, CHARLES. 
My Handkerchief Garden ; size, 25x60 feet. Results : A 
garden, fresh vegetables, exercise, health and $20.49. New 
York. n. d. [n. c] E. H. Libby. pp.69. 7)^x5. [1st ed.] 

* Signifies date of copyright. 

t ** size of Book in inches, as measured on the cover, 
[u. e.J=No record of copyright, 
[n. d.]=No date. 



246 The Principles of Vegetable' Gardening 

-Same, 2d ed. Illustrated. 1893. [c. 1893.] The Eural 
Publishing Company, pp.75. 7Xx5. [The Rural Library, 
Vol. I, No. 17, April.] 

BEADLE, D. W. 
Canadian Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Gardener; a guide in 
all matters relating to the cultivation of fruits, flowers and 
vegetables, and their value for cultivation in this climate. 
Illustrated. Colored plates. Toronto. 1872. [e. 1872.] 
James Campbell & Son. pp. xvi + 391. 9x6. 

BOCHOVE, G. VAN and BROTHER. 
Kalamazoo Celery ; its cultivation and secret of success. 
Kalamazoo, Mich. 1893. [e. 1886.]. Kalamazoo Publishing 
Co. pp. 29. 6%x43^. 

BOSSON, CHARLES P. 
Observations on the Potato, and Remedy for the Potato 
Plague. In two parts; containing a history of the potato, 
its cultivation and uses ; also a treatise on the potato malady, 
its origin and appearances in different countries, a view of 
various theories concerning it, with the remedies proposed, 
and an inquiry into the causes producing the disease, with 
directions for staying its further progress. Boston. 1846. 
[c. 1846.] Published by E.L. Pratt, pp.ii + 118. 8Xx5. 

BRIDGEMAN, THOMAS. 

The American Gardener's Assistant. In three parts, con- 
taining complete directions for the cultivation of vegetables, 
flowers, fruit trees, and grape-vines. New edition; revised, 
enlarged and illustrated by S. Edward Todd. Part I. Kitchen- 
Gardening, pp. 152* Part II. Fruit- Gardening, pp. 211; Part 
III. Flower- Gardening, pp. 166. [The work is a revision of 
"The Young Gardener's Assistant."] 

The Kitchen Gardener's Instructor; containing a catalogue 
of garden and herb seed, with practical directions under each 
head for the cultivation of culinary vegetables and herbs. 
With a calendar, showing the work necessary to be done in a 
kitchen garden every month throughout the season. Also, 
directions for forcing or forwarding vegetables out of the ordi- 
nary season. The whole adapted to the climate of the United 



Books 



247 



States. A new and improved edition. New York. 1860. 
[c. 1847.] CM. Saxton, Barker & Co. pp. xii + 164. 7%x5. 

The Young Gardener's Assistant; containing a catalogue of 
garden and flower seeds, with practical directions under each 
head, for the cultivation of culinary vegetables and flowers. 
Also, directions for cultivating fruit trees, the grape vines, 
etc. ; to which is added a calendar, showing the work neces- 
sary to be done in the various departments of gardening in 
every month of the year. Seventh edition, improved. New 
York. 1837. [c. 1837.] Mitchell & Turner, pp. vi + 360. 
8>ix5. 

—Same, 8th edition, improved. 1840. [c. 1840.] pp. vi + 408. 
8>ix5%. 

— Same, the whole adapted to the climate of the United States. 
New edition, with an appendix, containing remarks on the 
all -eyed disease of the potato, etc. Part I. Vegetable depart- 
ment. New York. 1865. [1847J William Wood & Co. 
pp. vi + 164. 7% X 5. [The three parts were also pub- 
lished separately as "Kitchen Gardener's Instructor," "Fruit- 
Cultivator's Manual," and "Florist's Guide."] 

BRILL, FRANCIS. 
Cauliflowers and How to Grow Them; with plain practical 
and explicit directions in minute detail for the cultivation and 
management of this crop, from the sowing of the seed to the 
marketing of the product. Riverhead, New York. 1886. 
[n. c] Published by the author, pp.16. 9x5%. 
Farm-Gardening and Seed- Growing. New and enlarged edi- 
tion. With suggestions to seed-growers. By George Thur- 
ber. New York. 1897. [1883.] Orange Judd Co. pp.166. 
7Xx5. 

BUIST, ROBERT. 
The Family Kitchen Gardener; containing plain and accurate 
descriptions of all the different species and varieties of culi- 
nary vegetables; with their botanical, English, French, and 
German names, alphabetically arranged, and the best mode of 
cultivating them, in the garden or under glass; with a de- 
scription of implements and medicinal herbs in general use. 
Also, descriptions and characters of the most select fruits, their 



248 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



management, propagation, etc. Illustrated with twenty-five 
engravings. New York. 1852. [c. 1847.] C. M. Saxton. pp. 
216. 7%x5. 

—Same, New York. 1867. [c. 1847.] Orange Judd Co. pp. 
216. 7%x5. 

BURPEE, W. ATLEE & CO. 
Vegetables for the Home Garden. Third ed. Illustrated. 
Philadelphia. 1898. [e. 1896.] pp. 127. 7Xx5. 

BURPEE, W. ATLEE. 
Root Crops for Stock Feeding and How to Grow Them. 

Compiled from the prize essays and practical experience. 

Illustr. Philadelphia. 1888. [c. 1888]. W. Atlee Burpee 

& Co. pp. viii. + 72. 7% x 5. 
How TO Grow Melons FOR Market. Illustrated. Philadelphia. 

1888. [c. 1888.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. pp. x + 81. 

7)^x5. 

See Pedersen, J., and Howard, G. H. "How to Grow Cabbages 

and Cauliflower Most Profitably." 
See Darlington, E. D., and Moll, L. M. " How and What to 

Grow in a Kitchen Garden of One Acre." 

See Greiner, T., and Arlie, C. H. "How to Grow Onions." 

BURR, FEARING, JR. 

The Field and Garden Vegetables of America ; containing 
full descriptions of nearly eleven hundred species and varie- 
ties, with directions for propagation, culture and use. Illus- 
trated. Boston. 1863. [c. 1863.] Crosby & Nichols, pp. 
XV + 674. 9x6. 

Garden Vegetables, and How to Cultivate Them. Illus- 
trated. Boston. 1866. [c. 1866.] J. E. Tilton & Co. pp. 
12 + 355. 7%x5. [Abridgment of the above]. 

CARMAN, ELBERT S. 

The New Potato Culture ; as developed by the trench system, 
by the judicious use of chemical fertilizers, and by the experi- 
ments carried on at the rural grounds during the past fifteen 
years. New York. 1891. [c. 1891.] The Rural Publishing 
Co. pp. 165. 8%x5%. 



Books 



249 



COBBETT, WILLIAM. 

The American Gardener; a treatise on the situation, soil, fenc- 
ing and layin^-out of gardens; on the making and managing 
of hotbeds and greenhouses, and on the propagation and cul- 
tivation of the several sorts of vegetables, herbs, fruits and 
flowers. Baltimore and Frederick, Md. 1823. [pref. 1819.] 
J. Robinson, and J. Robinson & Co. pp. ix + 252. 5Xx3X. 

—Same. New York. 1856. [preface 1819.] C, M. Saxton & 
Co. pp.230. 8x4%. 

— Same. New York. n. d. [preface 1819.] Orange Judd & 
Co. pp. 230. 6Xx4. 

— Same. American stereotype edition. Concord, N. H. 1842. 
[c. 1842.] L. Hamilton, Boston. Saxton & Pierce, New York. 
Saxton & Miles, pp. x + 271. 6%x4X. B. 

— Same. Paper cover. 

COMPLETE Gardener and Florist, The ; containing an account 
of every vegetable production cultivated for the table, with 
directions for planting and raising flowers. 9th ed. New 
York. 1849. [n. c] Dewitt & Davenport, pp. iv + 92, 
7X X 4X. [Bound with the " Flower Gardener.^^] 

CRIDER, MRS. H. M. 

How TO GROW Fine Celery. A New Method. York, Pa. 1884. 
[c. 1884.] H. M. Crider, publisher, pp. 14. 

CROZIER, A. A. 

The Cauliflower. 1 plate. Ann Arbor, Mich. 1891. 

[c. 1891.] Register Publishing Co. pp.230. 7%x53^. 
How TO Cook Cauliflower. Ann Arbor, Mich. n. d. 

[c. 1891.] The Register Publishing Co. pp.28. 7Xx5. 

CUMMINS, D. 

See Day, J. W. "Tomato Culture.'^ 

DARLINGTON, E. D., and MOLL. L. M. 

How AND What to Grow in a Kitchen Garden op one Acre. 
Edited by W. Atlee Burpee. Illustrated. Philadelphia. 1888. 
[c. 1888.] Published by W. Atlee Burpee, pp. vii+198. 
7%x5. 

—Same (6th ed.), 1893. [c. 1888.] pp. vii + 198. 7X^5. 



250 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



DAY, J. w. ' 
Treatise on Tomato Culture. Crystal Springs, Miss. 1891. 
[n. e.] pp. 25. 8%x5X. 

DAY, J. W., CUMMINS, D., and ROOT, A. I. 

Tomato Culture ; in three parts. Part I. Tomato culture in 
the south. Part II. Tomato culture especially for canning 
factories. Part III. Plant -growing for market, and high- 
pressure gardening in general. A practical book for those 
who work under either glass or cloth as protection from frost. 
Illustrated. Medina, Ohio. 1892. [n. c] A. I. Root. pp. 
135. 6Xx5. 

ELDER, WALTER. 

The Cottage Garden op America ; containing practical direc- 
tions for the culture of flowers, fruits and vegetables, the 
natures and improvement of soils, manures, and their appli- 
cation, wounds, diseases and cures, monthly calendar, insects, 
botany, etc. Philadelphia. 1849. [c. 1848.] Moss & Broth- 
ers, pp. v + 233. 7%x4%. 
— Same, 2d edition, revised and improved. 1850. [c. 1848]. 
pp. viii + 233. 

EMERSON, G. 

See Neill, Patrick. • " The Practical Fruit, Flower and Vegetable 
Gardener^s Companion." 

FESSENDEN, T. G. 
The New American Gardener ; containing practical directions 

on the culture of fruits and vegetables; including landscape 

and ornamental gardening, grape vines, silk, strawberries, etc. 

Boston. 1828. [c. 1828.] J.' B. Russell, pp.307. 7x4%. 
—Same, 4th ed. Boston. 1833. [1828.] Carter and Hendee. 

pp.307. 73^x5. 
—Same, 6th ed. Boston. 1832. [c. 1828.] Carter & Hendee, 

and John B. Russell, pp. 312. 7x4X. 
—Same, 7th ed. Boston and Cincinnati. 1833. [c. 1828.] 

Russell, Odiorne & Co. ; Carter, Hendee & Co. ; H. L. and 

H. S. Barnum. pp. 307. 7%x5. 
—Same, 13th ed. Boston and Philadelphia. 1839. [c. 1828.] 

Otis Broadars & Co.; Thomas Cowperthwaite & Co. pp. 307. 

7^x5. 



Books 



251 



.—Same, 16th ed. 1843. [c. 1828.] pp.306. 7%x4X. 
—Same, 19tli ed. 1847. [c. 1828.] pp. 306. T^xS. 
—Same, 20th ed. 1850. [c. 1828.] pp. 306. 7Xx4X. 

Same, 30th ed. 1857. [c. 1828.] pp. 306. 8x5X. 

[Bound with "The Complete Farmer."] 

The American Kitchen Garden ; containing practical directions 
for the culture of vegetables. Also garden fruits, strawberry, 
raspberry, gooseberry, currants, melons, etc., etc. Revised 
from the 35th ed., and adapted to the use of families, by a 
practical gardener. New York. 1856. [c. 1852.] C. M. 
Saxton & Co. pp. viii + 120. 8x5%. B. [Bound fifth in 
Saxton^s "Rural Hand-Books." 2d series.] 

— Same, separate. 1852. 

FITCH, JOHN M. 

Practical Suggestions on Vegetable Culture. For the 
market-gardener, the farmer, and any one interested in good 
things to eat. Written expressly for F. Barteldes & Co. 
Lawrence, Kansas. 1898. Journal Publishing Co. pp. 32. 
8%x5%. 

FITZ, JAMES. 

Sweet Potato Culture ; giving full instructions from starting 
the plants to harvesting and storing the crop, with a chapter 
on the Chinese yam. New and enlarged edition. New York. 
1886. [c. 1886.] Orange Judd Co., David W. Judd, president, 
pp. 86. 7Xx5. 

GARDEN, The; a pocket manual of practical horticulture: or 
how to cultivate vegetables, fruits and flowers, embracing an 
exposition of the nature and action of soils and manures, and 
the structure and growth of plants; directions for the forming 
of a garden; description of implements and fixtures; instruc- 
tions for sowing, transplanting, budding, grafting, and cultivat- 
ing vegetables, fruits and flowers, with a chapter on ornamental 
trees and shrubs by the author of "How to Write," "How to 
Behave," etc. No. 1. Hlustrated. New York. 1858. [c. 1858.] 
Fowler and Wells, pp. xi + 166. 7x4. 
—Same, No. 3. 7%x5. 



252 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



GARDINER, JOHN, and HEPBURN, DAVID. 

The American Gardener; containing ample directions for 
working a kitchen garden, every month in the year; and 
copious instructions for the cultivation of flower gardens, 
vineyards, nurseries, hop-yards, greenhouses and hothouses. 
Washington. 1804. [c. 1804.] Samuel H. Smith, pp. 204. 
7x4X. 
GREEN, SAMUEL B. 

Vegetable Gardening ; a manual on the growing of vegetables 
for home use and marketing. Prepared especially for the 
classes of the school of agriculture of the University of Min- 
nesota. With 115 illustrations. St. Paul. 1896. [c. 1896.] 
Author. Webb Publishing Co., agents, pp.224. 7x5. 

— Same, 2d edition, revised. With 122 illustrations. 1899. 
[c. 1899.] pp.240. 7x5. 

GREGORY, JAMES J. H. 

Cabbages: How to grow them. A practical treatise on cabbage 
culture, giving full details on every point, including keeping 
and marketing the crop. Marblehead, Mass. 1881. [c. 1870.] 
Messenger Steam Printing House, pp. 72. 7/^x5. 

Carrots, Mangold -Wurtzels and Sugar Beets: How to 
raise them, how to keep them, and how to feed them. Mar- 
blehead, Mass. 1882. [e. 1877.] Messenger Steam Printing 
House, pp.61. 7Xx5. 

Onion Raising: What kinds to raise, and the way to raise them. 
7th edition (revised). Illustrated. Marblehead, Mass. 1881. 
[c. 1864.] Messenger Steam Printing House. pp. 42. 
7)^x5. 

Squashes: How to grow them. A practical treatise on squash 
culture. Giving full details on every point, including keeping 
and marketing the crop. New revised and enlarged edition. 
Illustrated. New York. 1889. [c. 1883,] Orange Judd Co. 
pp.83. 7>ix5. 

GREINER, T. 

Celery for Profit; an expose of modern methods in celery 
growing. Illustrated. Philadelphia. Spring, 1893. [c. 
1893.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. pp. viii + 85. 7Xx5. 



Books 



253 



How TO Make the Garden Pay. Illustrated. Philadelphia. 

1890. [c. 1890.] Wm. Henry Maule. pp. 272. 9 x 6. 
— Same, 2d, revised aud enlarged edition. 1894. [e. 1890.] 

pp.319. 9x6. 

Onions for Profit; an expos6 of modern methods in onion 
growing. Illustrated. Philadelphia. 1893. [c. 1893.] W. 
Atlee Burpee & Co. pp.vi + 104. 7Xx5. 

The New Onion Culture ; a story for young and old, which 
tells how to grow 2,000 bushels of fine bulbs on one acre. The 
new system fully explained. Illustrated. [La Salle, New 
York.] 1891. [c. 1891.] pp. vi + 62. 7%x5%. 

The Young Market -G-ardener; beginner^s guide. Parti. A 
little pit well built. Part 11. A little plat well tilled. Part 
III. A little purse well filled. Illustrated. [La Salle, New 
York.] Spring, 1896. [c. 1895.] pp. iv + 119. 7%x5>^. [T. 
Greiner^s garden series. No. 2.] 
GREINER, T., and ARLIE, C. H. 

How TO Grow Onions; with notes on varieties. Edited by W. 
Atlee Burpee. Philadelphia. 1888. [c. 1887.] W. Atlee 
Burpee & Co. pp. viii + 71. 7Xx5. 

HARRIS, JOSEPH. 
Gardening for Young and Old. The cultivation of garden 

vegetables in the farm garden. Illustrated. New York. 

1897. [e. 1882.] Orange Judd Co. pp.191. 7%x5. 
HENDERSON, PETER. 
Gardening for Pleasure ; a guide to the amateur in the fruit, 

vegetable and flower garden, with full directions for the 

greenhouse, conservatory and window garden. New, enlarged 

edition. Illustrated. New York. 1882. [c. 1875.] Orange 

Judd Co. pp. v + 250. 73<x5. 
—Same. 1888. [c. 1887.] Orange Judd Co. pp. vi+404. 

7^x5. 

Gardening for Profit ; a guide to the successful cultivation of 
the market and family garden. Illustrated. New York. n. d. 
[e. 1867.] Orange Judd & Co. pp. viii+243. 7^x5. 

— Same, new and enlarged edition. 1885. [c. 1874.] pp. 
vi + 276. 

— Same, entirely new and greatly enlarged. Illustrated with 
numerous new engravings. 1887. [c. 1886.] pp.xii + 376. 



254 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



HEPBURN, DAVID. 

See Gardiner, John. "The American Gardener." 

HOLLISTER, E. J. 
Livingston's Celery Book. Conclusions at the close of twenty 
years' extensive experience by the author on best methods of 
preparation of soil, cultivating and marketing the crop. 
Illustrated. Columbus, Ohio. n. d. [c. 1898.] A. W. Liv- 
ingston's Sons. pp.96. 7Xx5%. 

HOLMES, FRANCIS S. 

The Southern Farmer and Market -Gardener; being a com- 
pilation of useful articles on these subjects, from the most 
approved writers. Developing the principles and pointing out 
the method of their application to the farming and gardening 
of the South, and particularly of the low country. New im- 
proved and enlarged edition. Charleston, S. C. n. d. [e. 
1852.] Wm. R. Babcoek. pp. viii + 249. 7X x4X. 

HOW TO Grow Fruit, Flowers and Vegetables; and the lan- 
guage of flowers. New York. Norman L. Munro. No date. 
Paper, pp. 68. 6Xx4. 

HOWARD, G. H. 
See Pedersen, J., and Howard, G. H. "How to Grow Cab- 
bages and Cauliflowers Most Profitably." 

JACQUES, D. H. 

The Garden; a manual of practical horticulture; or how to cul- 
tivate vegetables, fruits and flowers ; embracing an exposition 
of the nature and action of soils and manures and the 
structure and growth of plants ; directions for the forming of 
a garden ; description of implements and fixtures ; instructions 
for sowing, transplanting, budding, grafting, and cultivating 
vegetables, fruits, and flowers; with a chapter on ornamental 
trees and shrubs. Revised edition. Illustrated. New York, 
[o. 1866.] Geo. E. and F. W. Woodward, pp. xii-f 166. 
7^x5. 

KITCHEN AND Fruit Gardener, The ; a select manual of kitchen 
gardening and culture of fruits, containing familiar directions 
for the most approved practice in each department, descrip- 
tions of many valuable fruits, and a calendar of work to be 



Boohs 



255 



performed each month in the year. The whole adapted to the 
climate of the United States. Philadelphia. 1844. [c. 1844.] 
Lea & Blanchard. pp. xii-f-118. 7%x4%. [An American 
edition of an English work. Bound with the Complete 
Florist."] 
LANDRETH, BURNET. 

Market -Gardening and Farm Notes; experiences and obser- 
vations in the garden and field, of interest to the amateur gar- 
dener, trucker and farmer. New York. 1893. [c. 1892.] 
Orange Judd Co. pp. iv + 215. 7X^5. 

999 Queries, with Answers upon Agricultural and Horti- 
cultural Subjects. Published by David Landreth & Sons. 
Philadelphia. 1784. [c. 1895.] Press of Maccalla & Co. pp. 
200. 9>ix6. 

LELIEVRE, J. F. 
NouvEAU Jardinier de la Louisiane; contenant les instruc- 
tions necessaires aux personnes qui s'occupent de jardinage. 
Nouvelle- Orleans. 1838. [n. c] J. F. Lelievre. pp. 
viii + 200. 6Xx4%. 

LIVINGSTON, A. W. 
Livingston and the Tomato ; being a history of experiences in 
discovering the choice varieties introduced by him, with prac- 
tical instructions for growers. Illustrated. Columbus, Ohio, 
n. d. [c. 1893.] Published by A. W. Livingston's Sons, Seed- 
men. pp.176. 7^x5%. 
Livingston's Celery Book. See Hollister, E. J. 
LUPTON, J. M. 

Cabbage and Cauliflower for Profit. With fifty-three illus- 
trations. Philadelphia. 1898. [c. 1894.] W. Atlee Burpee 
&Co. pp. vii + 122. 7Xx5. 

MARKET GARDEN, The; a journal for the market- gardener. 
Monthly. Illustrated. Minneapolis. Jan., 1894-Sept., 1898. 
The Market Garden Co. 12x9. The first number was issued 
in Jan., 1894, although it bears date of Jan. 1, 1893. It is a 
4-page issue. The second number appeared in July, 1894. It 
was not given general circulation, but was sent out for the pur- 
pose of securing opinions as to the advisability of establishing 



256 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



such a journal. The regular issue of the periodical began with 
October, 1894. This was the only attempt in North America, 
so far as the author is aware, to publish a journal devoted solely 
to vegetable -gardening interests] . 

MARSHALL, CHARLES. 

An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gar- 
dening; first American from the second London edition, con- 
siderably enlarged and improved. To which is added an 
essay on quick-lime, by James Anderson. Vol. I. Boston, 
1799. [n. c] Samuel Etheridge. pp. ii + 276. 7x4^. 

McNEIL, J. W. 

Fruits and Vegetables. Hazlehurst, Miss. 1888. [n. c] 
Copiah Signal print, pp.21. 9x5%. 

M'MAHON, BERNARD. 

The American Gardener's Calendar; adapted to the climates 
and seasons of the United States. Containing a complete ac- 
count of all the work necessary to be done in the kitchen-gar- 
den, fruit -garden, orchard, vineyard, nursery, pleasure-grounds, 
flower-garden, greenhouse, hothouse, and forcing-frames, for 
every month in the year; with ample practical directions for 
performing the same. Also, general as well as minute instruc- 
tions for laying out, or erecting, each and every of the above 
departments, according to modern taste and the most approved 
plans ; the ornamental planting of pleasure-grounds, in the 
ancient and modern style; the cultivation of thorn -quicks and 
other plants suitable for live hedges, with the best meth- 
ods of making them, etc. To which are annexed extensive 
catalogues of the different kinds of plants which may be cul- 
tivated either for use or ornament in the several departments, 
or in rural economy; divided into eighteen separate alphabeti- 
cal classes, according to their habits, duration, and modes of 
culture; with explanatory introductions, marginal marks, and 
their true Linnsean or botanical, as well as English names; 
together with a copious index to the body of the work. Phila- 
delphia. 1806. [c. 30th year of the independence of the U, 
S.] B. Graves, pp. v-f 666. SX^^X- 



Boohs 



257 



The American Gardener's Calendar; adapted to the climates 
and seasons of the United States. Containing a complete 
account of all the work necessary to be done in the kitchen- 
garden, fruit-garden, orchard, vineyard, nursery, pleasure- 
grounds, flower-garden, greenhouse, hothouse, and forcing- 
frames, for every month in the year; with ample practical 
directions for performing the same. Also, general as well as 
minute instructions for laying out, or erecting, each and every 
of the above departments, according to modern taste and the 
most approved plans; the ornamental planting of pleasure- 
grounds, in the ancient and modern style ; the cultivation of 
thorn-quicks and other plants suitable for live hedges, with 
the best methods of making them, etc. To which are an- 
nexed catalogues of kitchen-garden plants and herbs; aro- 
matic, pot and sweet herbs; medicinal plants; and the most 
important grasses, etc., used in rural economy, with the soil 
best adapted to their cultivation; together with a copious in- 
dex to the body of the work. Fourth edition, improved. 
Philadelphia. 1820. [c. 1819.] T.P. M'Mahon. pp.618. 
8Xx5%. 

The American Gardener's Calendar; adapted to the climates 
and seasons of the United States. Containing a complete 
account of all the work necessary to be done in the kitchen - 
garden, fruit-garden, flower-garden, orchard, pleasure-grounds, 
vineyard, nursery, greenhouse, hothouse, and forcing-frames, 
for every month in the year; with practical directions and 
copious index. Eleventh edition, with a memoir of the author, 
revised and illustrated under the supervision of J. Jay Smith. 
Philadelphia. 1857. [c. 1857.] J. B. Lippineott & Co. pp. 
ix + 637. 9%x6. 

MITCHELL, S. H. 

Tomato -Growing for Profit; being a practical treatise show- 
ing in detail how to grow tomatoes by new methods ; from the 
sowing of the seed to the marketing of the crop, so as to leave 
when sold the largest amount of profit to the producer, the 
whole being the result of over thirty years' extensive practical 
experience by the author. Toronto. 1895. [n.c] Dudley 
& Burns, pp.24. 9Xx6%. 



Q 



258 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 



MUNKO, NORMAN L., Publisher. 

See "How to Grow Fruit, Flowers and Vegetables." 

NEILL, PATRICK. 

The Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Garden. Adapted to the 
United States, from the fourth edition, revised and improved 
by the author. Illustrated. Philadelphia. 1851. fc. 1851.] 
Henry Carey Baird . pp . ix + 427 . 7% x 4% . 

The Practical Fruit, Flower and Vegetable Gardener's 
Companion, with a calendar; adapted to the United States 
from the fourth edition, revised and improved by the author. 
Edited by G. Emerson. With notes and additions by R. G. 
Pardee. With elegant illustrations. New York. 1858. 
[c. 1855.] A. O. Moore, pp. xiv + 408. 7Xx5X. 

NIVEN, ROBERT, and Others. 

The New Celery Culture; no banking up required. The 
practice of practical men. Illustrated. New York. 1892. 
[c. 1892.] The Rural Publishing Co. pp. 29. 7Xx5. 
[The Rural Library, Vol. I, No. 7. May.] 

OEMLER, A. 

Truck-Farming at the South; a guide to the raising of vege- 
tables for northern markets. Illustrated. New York. 1884. 
[c. 1883.] Orange Judd Co. pp. 270. 1%^^%, 

OLCOTT, HENRY S., Editor. 

See Roessle, Theophilus. "How to Cultivate and Preserve 
Celery." 

ONION BOOK, The. A Practical Guide to the Profitable -Culture 
of the Crop. By some twenty experienced growers. Illustr. 
New and greatly enlarged edition. New York. n. d. 
[c. 1887]. Orange Judd Co. pp. 36. 10x6%. 

PEDERSEN, J., (BJERGAARD) and HOWARD, G. H. 

How TO Grow Cabbages and Cauliflowers Most Profitably. 
Illustrated. Edited by W. Atlee Burpee, Philadelphia. 1888. 
[c. 1888.] W. Atlee Burpee & Co. pp. v + 85. 7X^5. 



Books 



259 



PRACTICAL American Gardener, The; exhibiting the time for 
every kind of work in the kitchen -garden, fruit-garden, 
orchard, nursery, shrubbery, pleasure-ground, flower-garden, 
hop-yard, greenhouse, hothouse and grape vines for every 
month in the year. By an old Gardener. Baltimore. 1822. 
[c. 43d year of the independence of the U. S.] Fielding Lucas, 
Jr. pp.xii + 424. 5Xx3X. 

PRICE, R. H. 

Sweet Potato Culture for Profit; a full account of the ori- 
gin, history and botanical, characteristics of the sweet potato. 
Illustrated. Full and complete instructions from how to grow 
the plants to harvesting and storing the crop for both southern 
and northern latitudes. Complete discussion of the diseases 
and insects which injure the crop. A description ot 47 varie- 
ties, with a new system of classifying them. The Chinese 
yam and the vineless variety are discussed. Latest improved 
machinery discussed, etc. Dallas, Texas, n. d. [c. 1896.] 
Texas Farm and Ranch Publishing Co. pp. 110. 8Xx5X- 

PROVANCHER, L'ABBE L. 

Le Verger; Le potager et le parterre dans la Province de 
Quebec, ou culture raisonnee des fruits, legumes et fleurs 
qui peuvent p^ussir sous le climat de Quebec. Ouvrage 
orn6 de nombreuses gravures sur bois. Quebec. C. Darveau. 
1881. [Preface dated 1874.] pp. 332. 6%x4>^. 

QUINN, P. T. 

Money in the Garden ; A vegetable manual prepared with a 
view to economy and profit. Illustr. New York. 1871. 
[c.l871]. Tribune Assoc. pp.x-f-268. 73^x5. [Later pub. 
by Orange Judd Co.] 

RAWSON, W. W. 

Celery and ITS Cultivation. Revised edition. Illustr. Bos- 
ton. 1900. [c. 1891. 1900]. W. W. Rawson. pp. 24. 
7^x5. 

Success in Market- Gardening ; and Vegetable Growers' 
Manual. Illustrated. Boston. 1887. [c. 1887.] Published 
by the author, pp. iv + 208. 7Xx5. 



260 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



ROE, E. p. 

Play and Profit in My Garden. [New ed.] New York. 
1893 . [c . 1886 . ] Orange Judd Co . pp . 349 . 7% x 5 . 

ROESSLE, THEOPHILUS. 
How TO Cultivate and Preserve Celery. Edited, with a 
preface, by Henry S. Oleott. Colored plates. Albany. 1860. 
[c. I860.] Theophilus Roessle, Delavan House, New York; 
C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. pp. xxvi + 102. 9Xx6. 

ROLFS, P. H. 

Vegetable -Growing in the South for Northern Markets; 
being concise directions for the preparation of the soil, use 
and amounts of fertilizers, and the planting of vegetable crops 
to obtain the earliest vegetables; also the best methods of 
packing for shipping, the raising of seed for market, and 
preserving it for home use. Illustrated. Richmond. 1896. 
[c. 1896.] The Southern Planter Publishing Co. pp. xi -f 
255. 7%x5. 

ROOT, A. I. 

See Day, J. W. Tomato Culture." 

SCHENCK, PETER ADAM. 
The Gardener's Text-Book ; containing practical directions 
upon the formation and management of the kitchen -garden, 
and for the culture and domestic use of its vegetables, fruits, 
and medicinal herbs. Illustrated. New York. 1860. [c. 1851.] 
C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co. pp. 306. 6x4. 

SHINN, CHAS. H. 
Pacific Rural Hand-Book; containing a series of brief and 
practical essays and notes on the culture of trees, vegetables 
and flowers, adapted to the Pacific coast. Also hints on home 
and farm improvements. San Francisco, n. d. [c. 1879.] 
Dewey & Co. Pacific Rural Press, pp. 122. 7Xx 4%. 

STEWART, HENRY. 

Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard. With 
numerous illustrations. New York. 1883. [c. 1877.] Orange 
Judd Co. pp. 264. 7Xx5. 



Boohs 



261 



STEWART, HOMER L. 
Celery Growing and Marketing a Success. With portrait of 
the author; also illustrated with 13 plates, showing new tools 
and appliances in celery culture and the care of the crop. 
This is the only book ever written which covers the whole 
period of growing, marketing and earing for the crop, with 
explicit directions. Tecumseh, Mich. 1891. [c. 1891.] The 
Blade Printing and Paper Co. pp. 151. 7/{xd/i. 

TERRY, T. B. 

The a B C of Potato Culture. How to grow them in the 
largest quantity, and of the finest quality, with the least 
expenditure of time and labor. Carefully considering all the 
latest improvements in this branch of agriculture up to the 
present date. Illustrated by twenty engravings. Medina, 
Ohio. 1885. A. I. Root. pp. 42 + 8. 10x6X. 

THOMPSON, FRED. S. 
Rhubarb or Pie -Plant Culture. Illustrated. The best 
varieties. Essential points in growing good rhubarb. How 
rhubarb pays, compared with certain crops. The first and 
only edition on this subject. Milwaukee, Wis. 1894. [c. 1894.] 
J. N. Yewdale & Sons Co. pp. 76. 7Xx5. 

THORBURN, GRANT. 

The Gentleman and Gardener^ s Kalendar; containing ample 
directions for the cultivation of the kitchen and flower garden, 
greenhouse, nursery, orchard, etc., for the United States of 
America, 3d ed,, corrected and improved. Price, 50 cents. 
Ving. t. p. New York. 1821. [c. in the 36th year of the 
independence of U. S. A.] B. Young, pp. 132. 7x4%. 

TILLINGHAST, ISAAC F. 
A Manual of Vegetable Plants; containing the experiences 
of the author in starting all those kinds of vegetables which 
are most difiicult for a novice to produce from seeds, with the 
best methods known for combating and repelling noxious 
insects, and preventing the diseases to which garden vege- 
tables are subject. Factoryville, Pa. 1878. [c. 1877.] Til- 
linghast Brothers, pp. 102. 6%x4%. 



262 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



TiLLiNGHAST's PLANT MANUAL. A guide to the successful 
propagation of cabbage and celery plants. Illustrated. La 
Plume, Pa. January, 1888. Published by the author, pp. 
32. 9x6. 

TODD, S. EDWARDS. 

See Bridgeman, "American Gardener's Assistant." 

VAUGHAN'S Celery Manual. Illustrated. Chicago. 1889. 
[c. 1889.] Vaughan's seed store, pp. 39. 7X x5%. 

VICK, JAMES. 

Vice's Flower and Vegetable Garden. Illustrated. Roch- 
ester, N. Y. n. d. Published by James Vick. pp. 166. 
9Xx6X. 
WARNER, ANNA. 

Miss Tiller's Vegetable Garden and the Money She Made 
BY It. New York. n. d. [c. 1875.] Anson D. F. Randolph 
&Co. pp.140. 6%x4X. 

WATSON, ALEXANDER. 
The American Home Garden; being principles and rules for 
the culture of vegetables, fruits, flowers, and shrubbery. To 
which are added brief notes on farm crops, with a table of 
their average product and chemical constituents. Illustrated. 
New York. 1859. [c. 1859.] Harper & Brothers. pp. 
ix + 531. 8x5X. 

WAUGH, F. a. 

See Bailey, " Garden -Making. 

WHITE, WILLIAM N. 
Gardening for the South; or the kitchen and fruit garden; 
with the best methods for their cultivations, together with 
hints upon landscape and flower- gardening. Containing 
modes of culture and descriptions of the species and varieties 
of the culinary vegetables, fruit trees and fruits, and a select 
list of ornamental trees and plants found by trial adapted to 
the states of the Union south of Pennsylvania; with gardening 
calendars for the same. Illustrated. New York. 1856. fc. 
1856.] C. M. Saxton & Co. Athens, Ga. Wm. N. White, pp. 
vi + 402. 7%x5X. 



Boohs 



263 



Gardening for the South; or how to grow vegetables and 
fruits. With additions by Mr. J. Van Bur en and Dr. James 
Camak. Illustrated. New York. n. d. [c. 1868.] Orange 
Judd Co. pp. 444. 7/{x5. [Second edition of above.] 

WHITNER, J. N. 

Gardening in Florida; a treatise on the vegetables and tropi- 
cal products of Florida. Illustrated. Jacksonville, Florida. 
1885. [n. c] C.W.DaCosta. pp. xv + 246. 7Xx5%. 

WICKSON, EDWARD J. 

The California Vegetables in Garden and Field ; a manual 
of practice, with and without irrigation, for semi-tropical 
countries. Illustrated. San Francisco. 1897. [c. 1897.] 
Pacific Rural Press, pp.viii + 336. 9x6. 

YEAR BOOK, The, of the Farm and Garden; a reliable guide 
to all important rural occupations, embracing concise direc- 
tions for the improvement of the soil by draining, subsoil 
plowing, and trenching; implements of culture — their history, 
cost, and relative value ; rural architecture, with directions for 
the embellishment of the mansion by ornamental gardening; 
laying out and cropping the esculent garden, fruit culture, 
with directions for planting; lists of fruits, seeds, plants; 
insects injurious to farm and garden; bee culture, and other 
valuable miscellaneous matters. With new and beautiful illus- 
trations. Philadelphia. 1860. [c. I860.] A. M. Spangler. 
pp. 108. 7%x4. 



Recent Experiment Station Publications Relating to 
Vegetable - Gardening 

The following list is designed to include the leading 
bulletins relating to vegetable -growing from January, 
1897, to December, 1899. The publications previous to 
1897 are often out of print. If the reader desires a 
complete index to experiment station literature, and 



264 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 



also abstracts of the leading articles, he should consult 
the Experiment Station Record, published by the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

ALABAMA. 

No. 77. Some insect pests. 
No. 79. Some horticultural suggestions. 
No. 84. Turnips. 
No. 86. Insecticides, etc. 
No. 108. Tomatoes. 



ARKANSAS. 
No. 44. 
No. 50. 
No. 56. 

ARIZONA. 
No. 32. 

No. 35. 

COLORADO 
No. 41. 
No. 47. 



Vegetable -gardening. 
Some Irish potato experiments. 
Tomatoes, cabbage and onions. 

Some insect pests of Salt River valley, and the 

remedies for them. 
Vegetable -growing in southern Arizona. 



Blight and other plant diseases. 
Colorado's worst insect pests and their remedies. 

CONNECTICUT (State). 

No. 125. Preparation and application of fungicides. 
No. 126. Insecticides, their preparation and use; annual re- 
ports ; various articles. 

DELAWARE. 
No. 34. 
No. 41. 



FLORIDA. 
No. 45. 

No. 46. 
No. 47. 
No. 48. 
GEORGIA. 
No. 38. 
No. 45. 



Treatment of plant diseases in 1896. 
Pea canning in Delaware. 

Three injurious insects: Bean leaf -roller, corn 

delphax, canna leaf-roller. 
Strawberry thrips and onion thrips. 
Diseases of the tomato. 
Insect enemies of the tobacco. 

Watermelons. 

Some important insect enemies of cucurbits. 



Bulletins 1897-99 



265 



IDAHO. 

No. 17. Construction and management of hotbeds. 



INDIANA. 

No. 65. 
No. 66. 
No. 69. 

IOWA. 

No. 34. 
No. 36. 
No. 42. 

KANSAS. 
No. 70. 
No. 82, 
No. 86 

KENTUCKY. 

No. 72. 
No. 81. 

LOUISIANA 
No. 48. 
No. 52. 



Formalin for prevention of potato scab. 

Indoor lettuce culture. 

Insects, fungicides and spraying. 



Home propagation. 
Seed testing. 
Potato scab. 



Vegetable -growing. 
Potato -stalk weevil. 

(Press bulletins 1-34). Celery, seed-breeding, potato - 
stalk weevil, potato scab. 

Potatoes. 

A method of avoiding lettuce rot. Potato scab 
experiments. 

Eeport of entomologist. 

Report of horticultural department for 1896 and 1897. 



MAINE. 

No. 36. Testing seeds (Maine law, etc.). 

No. 40. Celery. 

No. 52. The spraying of plants. 

See also articles in annual reports. 

MARYLAND. 

No. 46. Corn and potato experiments. 

No. 48. Some common injurious plant lice, etc. 

No. 50. Rust and leopard spot of asparagus. 

No. 54. Tomatoes. 

No. 59. Sweet potato insects. 

No. 60. Some diseases of the sweet potato. 

No. 62. Experiments with wheat, corn and potatoes. 



266 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 

MASSACHUSETTS (Hatch). 

No. 43. Electro -germination. 
No. 44. Tests of vegetable seeds. 
No. 55. Nematode worms. 

No. 60. Insecticides, fungicides, spraying calendar. 
No. 61. Asparagus rust in Massachusetts. 
See also articles in annual reports. 

MICHIGAN. 

No. 144. Vegetables — old and new. 

No. 153. Vegetable tests— 1897. 

No. 160. Some insects of the year 1897. 

No. 170. Vegetable tests for 1898. 

No. 175. Some insects of the year 1898. 

Special bulletin 12. Spraying calendar. 

MINNESOTA. 

No. 52. Potatoes— variety test in 1896 and implements. 
No. 55. Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, etc., of Minnesota. 
No. 64. Migratory locusts or grasshoppers. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

No. 41. Colorado potato beetle in Mississippi 
No. 54. Irish potato culture. 

MISSOURI. 

No. 43. Asparagus culture in Missouri. Winter forcing of 
asparagus in the open field. 

No. 47. Tarnished plant bug. 
NEBRASKA. 

No. 52. Corn-stalk disease. 
NEVADA. 

No. 36. Some common injurious insects of western Nevada. 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
No. 41. Potatoes. 

No. 42. Tomatoes and tomato breeding. 

No. 45. (Potato scab) Fruit and potato diseases. 

No. 51. Sweet corn for New Hampshire. 

No. 52. Muskmelons. 

No. 60. Green corn under glass. 

No. 62. Forcing pole beans under glass. 

No. 63. Third potato report. 



Bulletins 1897-99 



267 



NEW JERSEY. 

No. 120. Field experiments with potatoes for 1896. 

No. 121. Harlequin cabbage bug and melon plant louse. 

No. 129. Asparagus rust. 

19tli Ann. Rept. Peas, beans, tomatoes, Lima beans, etc. In 
botanical section, fungous diseases. 

No. 138. Crude petroleum as an insecticide. Annual reports, 
various articles. 

NEW MEXICO. 

No. 20. Seeds. 

NEW YORK (Geneva). 

No. 119. Downy mildew of cucumber. 

No. 120. Fighting cutworms in onion fields. 

No. 121. Spray pumps and spraying. 

No. 123. Spraying potatoes on Long Island, season of 1896. 

No. 130. A bacterial disease of sweet corn. 

No. 137. Commercial fertilizers for potatoes. 

No. 138. Experiments and observations on some diseases of 

plants. 
No. 139. Plant lice. 
No. 143. Green arsenite. 

No. 144. A spraying mixture for cauliflower and cabbage worms. 
No. 146. Some experiments in forcing head lettuce. 
No. 154. Commercial fertilizers for potatoes. 
No. 156. Spraying cucumbers in the season of 1898. 
No. 158. Combating the striped beetle on cucumbers. 
No. 121. Appendix — spray pumps and spraying. Annual 
reports, various articles. 

NEW YORK (Cornell). 

No. 130. Potato culture. 

No. 132. Notes upon celery. 

No. 140. Second report on potato culture. 

No. 144. Notes on spraying. 

No. 149. Some spraying mixtures. 

No. 156. Third report on potato culture. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

No. 147. A study of lettuces. 

No. 159. Horticultural experiments at Southern Pines, 1896. 



i 



268 The Principles of Vegetable 'Gardening 



NORTH DAKOTA. 

No. 30. Preliminary report upon the selection of potatoes for 
planting. 

No. 36. A study of the root systems of corn and potatoes. 
No. 37. Prevention of potato scab. 

OHIO. 

No. 76. Potatoes. 

No. 77. Chinch bug, etc. 

No. 89. Prevalent diseases of cucumbers, melons and toma- 
toes. 

No. 96. Army worm and other insects. 

No. 102. Seed and soil treatment and spray calendar. 

No. 105. Further studies of cucumber, melon and tomato dis 

, eases, with experiments. 
No. 106. Experiments with insecticides. 

OREGON. 

No. 48. Spraying. 
No. 49. Paris green. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

No. 39. Potatoes. Annual reports — various articles. 

RHODE ISLAND 

No. 43. Additional tests of garden seeds. 
No. 44. Celery. 

No. 52. Suggestions as to spraying. 

No. 55. Forcing rhubarb. 

1897. Report — Garden lettuce and its cultivation; classi- 
fication and description of varieties of garden let- 
tuce ; asparagus rust. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

No. 28. The sweet potato as a starch producer. 

No. 36. Diseases of plants. 

No. 38. Asparagus rust in South Carolina. 

SOUTH DAKOTA. 

No. 57. Injurious insects. 

No. 59. Forage and garden crops in the James river valley. 
No. 61. Forage and garden crops in the James river valley. 



Bulletins 1897-99 



269 



TENNESSEE. 

Vol. X, No. 2. Pot culture of lettuce. 

TEXAS 

No. 42. The Irish potato. 

UTAH. 

No. 49. Spraying. 

VERMONT. 

No. 60. Insects of the year. Clubroot and black rot of cab- 
bage and turnip. 
No. 72. Certain potato diseases and their remedies. 

VIRGINIA. 

No. 92. The influence of commercial fertilizers upon the 
quality of the Irish potato. 

WASHINGTON. 

No. 27. A few facts about insects. 

No. 35. Miscellaneous injurious insects. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

No. 49. Vegetables. 

Folio spray calendar 1898. 

WISCONSIN. 

No.' 65. A bacterial rot of cabbage and allied plants. An- 
nual reports — various articles. 

WYOMING. 

No. 32. Potatoes. 



United States Department of Agriculture. 
Farmer^ s Bulletins. 

No. 61. Asparagus culture. 

No. 62. Marketing farm produce. 

No. 68. Black rot of cabbage. 

No. 73. Experiment Station Work IV. Seed selection. 
No. 76. Tomato -growing. 

No. 84. Experiment Station Work VII. Forcing asparagus 
in the field. 

No. 91. Potato diseases and their treatment. 



270 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



No. 92. Experiment Station Work IX. Improved culture of 
potato. 

No. 94. The vegetable garden. 

No. 105. Experiment Station Work XII. Fertilizers for gar- 
den crops; sweet corn and pole beans under glass. 
No. 107. Experiment Station Work XIII. Forcing rhubarb. 

Office of Experiment Station Bulletins. 

No. 57. Varieties of corn. (E. L. Sturtevant.) 
No. 68. A description of some Chinese vegetable food mate- 
rials. 



Division of Entomology , 
No. 23. New series. 

(1900). 



Some insects injurious to garden crops 



CHAPTER IX 



BOOT CROPS 



Carrot, 

Chervil, 

Turnip, 



Radish, 
Beet, 



Parsnip, 
Salsify, ■ 
Scorzonera, 
Scolymus, 
Horse-radish. 



Rutabaga, 



Root crops require a cool season and deep soil. They 
are grown in drills, and tisually are not transplanted. 
They are used both as main-season and secondary crops. 
All are hardy. Ko special skill is required in groiving 
them. 

The necessity of deep soil is apparent when one con- 
siders that the value of a root depends to a large extent 
on its straightness or symmetry. In hard and shallow 
soils roots are short and they tend to be branched and 
irregular. Fine tilth does much to insure quick growth, 
and quick growth improves the quality. Tile -draining 
and subsoiling greatly improve land that is to be used 
for root crops. The use of clover as a green manure is 
also desirable, as it loosens and ameliorates the soil to a 
greater depth than most other green -manure crops. 

Most root crops succeed best in cool soil. They 
thrive in the North, or in the cool season in the 
South. Those that do not require the entire season 



(271) 



272 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

in which to complete their growth usually thrive best 
in spring and fall. 

Root crops are of two general classes as respects 
the purposes for which they are grown — fodder crops 
and vegetable -gardening crops. The former are not 
intended here ; neither are sugar beets. Most of the 
vegetable-gardening root crops are able to secure their 
food from relatively unavailable combinations, and they 
generally use rather freely of potash, although they are 
also heavy nitrogen and phosphorus feeders. In order 
to start them quickly, a light dressing of some available 
nitrogen compound is useful, particularly if the roots 
are needed, for a particular season. Voorhees writes* 
that these crops, as a class, are much more exhaustive 
of the plant -food elements than the cereals and legumes. 

Probably the most laborious part of the growing of 
root crops is the harvesting, particularly of the long 
late kinds. This labor is much lessened by plowing out 
the roots. Even if the roots are too deep for the plow, 
two or three furrows may be thrown from either side 
of the row, and the pulling is made easier. Usually, 
however, hand-pulling is unnecessar^^ As soon as the 
roots are out the tops should be cut off about an inch 
above the crown, if the crop is to be stored or sold in 
bulk. The roots should lie in the sun until the soil is 
dry enough to shake from them, when they may be 
stored in the pit or cellar or sent to the market. They 
are easy to keep. 

The market value of a root depends largely on its 
looks. All strong side roots should be cut off, and 



* Fertilizers, p. 257. 



Root Crops — Radish 



273 



branchy specimens should be discarded. Early in the 
season, such roots as beet, carrot, radish, and turnip 
are sold in bunches of 6 to 12; but as the season ad- 
vances and prices fall, they are sold in bulk. When 
sold in bunches, care should be taken to have all the 
specimens in the bunch of uniform size and shape. The 
leaves are allowed to remain, and the bunches are tied 
neatly by a cord passed around the leaf -stalks. The 
bunches should be kept well sprinkled and away from 
the sun, for wilted leaves give them a stale and unat- 
tractive appearance. 

Special literature : Gregory, "Carrots, Mangold Wurtzels and 
Sugar Beets," Burpee, "Root Crops for Stock Feeding and How 
to Grow Them." 

RADISH 

Quick and continuous growth , rather cool weather, 
protection from the root maggot — these are prime con- 
siderations in the growing of radishes. The radish is 
a partial season crop. It is easy to grow. 

In America the radish is known mostly as a spring 
crop, although it is sometimes grown in the fall. In 
the Old World, however, it is known also as a summer 
crop, but the varieties grown in the hot weather are usu- 
ally unlike those raised in the spring and fall. There 
are three general types of radishes : the ordinary small 
spring or fall radish, usually light red or clear white; 
the large turnip radishes, useful for summer cultiva- 
tion, and which are white, gray or black; the winter 
radishes, which make a long, hard, woody root that is 
red, white or black in color. The winter radishes are 



274 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

relatively little grown here. They are said to be popu- 
lar in China and Japan. They are usually sown late 
in the season, as late turnips are, and the roots may 
be kept over winter as other roots are kept. 

Radishes are usually treated as a companion -crop 
when grown in the open field. They may be sown in 
drills between the rows of cabbages, peas or other, 
later-maturing vegetables. Sometimes they are sown 




Fig. 61. Seedlings of radish. Nearly natural size. 



directly in the drill with the other vegetables. The 
seeds are quick to germinate and thereby break the 
crust and mark the row and thus facilitate tillage, and 
the roots may be harvested before the other crops need 
the space. For family use, radishes are often grown 
in beds by themselves. In clean, friable land they are 
sometimes sown broadcast. If the soil is loose and 
rich, radishes should come to edible maturity in four 
to six weeks. The roots are of better quality when they 
are relatively small and crisp. When growth ceases the 
roots become stringy, bitter and often hollow. Sow at 



Radish 



275 



frequent intervals for a succession. Radishes are easily 
grown in hotbeds. 

If radishes are to be grown during the hot w^eather, 
the soil should be as cool as possible and supplied with 
an abundance of moisture 
in order to keep them grow- 
ing continuously. Radishes 
do not come to their full per- 
fection in soil that is hard 
and dry. The roots are so 
small and short that the 
plants are essentially sur- 
face feeders. Radishes are 
marketed in bunches (Fig. 
62). 

The seeds of radishes 
are large and germinate 
quickly. Better roots and 
a more uniform crop are ^^^^^ ^"^^^ radishes, 

secured by sowing only the large seeds. The small 
ones may be sifted out by means of a hand screen. 

The root maggot can be destroyed by injecting bi- 
sulfide of carbon into the ground about the plants (see 
Cabbage) ; but this operation is so expensive and i 
troublesome in comparison with the value of the I 
plants that it is not to be advised. The best alterna- 
tive is to grow the plants on land in which the maggot 
has not been breeding. If the whole garden is infested 
with the root maggot, it is advisable to cease growing 
radishes and related crops until the maggots have been 
starved out. There are no other very serious pests. 

i 
j 

1 




276 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Radishes are usually sown as early in spring as the ground is 
fit, even before frosts are past. Sow in rows 6 to 12 inches apart, 
or farther apart if a wheel hoe is to be used. Cover 3^ inch. Thin to 
2 or 3 inches apart. For family use, sow at intervals of 7 to 10 days. 
As the season advances, select a cooler site, as a northern expo- 
sure. Usually the sowings are discontinued from the last of Juce 
until late August. One ounce of seed sows 100 feet or more of 
drill; 8 to 10 lbs. is required for an acre. 

The most popular variety is French Breakfast. Other good 
kinds are Olive-shaped, Scarlet Short-top, Chartier, Wood Early 
Frame, White Box. For summer, good varieties are White Naples, 
White Vienna, Strasburg, Stuttgart. For winter, Scarlet Chinese, 
Black Spanish, White Spanish may be mentioned. 

The radish is an annual; or the roots may be kept over winter 
and planted out in the spring, when they will quickly run to seed. 
Spring and summer radishes run to seed the same season if left in 
the ground, but the best seed is produced from plants that are 
transplanted when young. Little radish seed is grown in North 
America, probably largely because of the high price of hand labor. 

The radish, Baphanus sativus, is one of the Cruciferse or Mustard 
family. It is unknown in a wild state. It is probably a devel- 
opment of the wild Charlock, Baphanus Baplianistrum , which is an 
annual weed of the Old World and is now 'naturaliz d in parts 
of the eastern states. (Consult Carriere's experiments as reported 
in his pamphlet Origine des Plantes Domestiques demontree par 
la Culture du Radis Sauvage," Paris, 1869.) The garden radish 
occasionally runs wild, when it loses its thick root. For a history 
of the radish, see Sturtevant, American Naturalist, April, 1890, pp. 
320-326. For description and classification of varieties of radish, 
see Goff, 6th Rep. N. Y. State Exp. Sta. (for the year 1887), pp. 
146-168. The classification is based on form and color of root: 

A. Root oblate, spherical or top -shaped. 
White. 

Yellow, light brown or grayish. 

Red. 

Purple. 

Black. 



Radish — Beet 



277 



AA. Root oval. 

(Color as above.) 
AAA. Root conical or eylmdri-conical. 
(Color as above.) 

The varieties were reduced to 43 I y Goff. In 1889 (Annals 
Hort.) 81 varieties were offered by American seedsmen. 

For experiments on value of different sizes of radish seed, see 
Galloway, Agric. Science, 1894, p. 557. 

For recent discussions of insects and diseases see : 

Cabbage maggot, Cornell Bull. No. 78: Advises tarred paper or 
bisulfide carbon. 

Club root. See cabbage. 

White rust, N. J. Rept. 1890, p. 350. 

BEET 

A loose deep rich fresh relatively cool soil and a 
continuous growth are the requisites in the cultivation of 
garden beet. It is usually a companion- or succession- 
crop in the vegetable -garden. The crop is hardy and 
easy to raise. There are no special difficulties. The 
round varieties are relatively surface feeders and early 
in their growth. The land should be kept well tilled in 
order to conserve the moisture and to keep down weeds, 
particularly during the early part of the season. 

There are two general types of beets grown for vege- 
table-gardening purposes: the short -season turnip vari- 
eties, and the main-season long-rooted varieties. The 
long -rooted varieties are less popular than a few years 
ago, for the turnip varieties may be grown in the fall 
for winter use, and fresh beets are to be had from the 
South during the winter season. Formerly the long 
blood beet was used for stock-feeding to some extent, 



278 The Principles of Vegetable - Gardening 

but in recent years the mangel-wurzel has largely taKen 
its place. 

Vegetable - gardeners now chiefly know the early 
turnip -rooted varieties. These varieties may be grown 
either as a spring or fall crop. They mature in two 
to three months, and roots large enough for bunching 
of some of the earliest varieties may be had in six 
weeks to two months. For fall use these turnip- 
rooted beets may be sown in July and August, or, in 
some places, even as late as the first of September. 
When sown late in the season, however, it is very im- 
portant that the land should have been well tilled 
previous to sowing, in order that it may not be too dry. 
The seeds require considerable moisture in order to 
germinate. This is largely because the seeds" are 
really fruits with hard shells, each fruit containing from 
two to five small seeds. The husks or walls of the 
fruit are relatively impervious to water. For the reason 
that the fruits rather than the seeds are sown, beets are 
likely to come up in little clumps, and careful thinning is 
therefore essential if the best results are to be secured. 
The long or blood beets are usually sown in early May 
in the northern states, and they occupy the ground the 
whole season. The early turnip varieties may be sown 
as soon as the land can be worked in spring if one 
wishes to secure an early crop. They may be followed 
by some later crop, as celery, late potatoes, cabbage or 
cauliflower. In some cases, they are grown as a com- 
panion-crop in the rows with some main -season crop, as 
cabbage. For very early results, it is well to sow the 
early varieties in hotbeds or coldframes. They may 



Beet 



279 



be allowed to mature in the frames, or in special cases 
they may be transplanted into beds, although trans- 
planting is rarely done, as it does not pay. For home 
use, two or three rows fifty feet long, the seeds being 
sown at intervals extending over a month, should give 
a sufficient supply for the spring and early summer. 
-Similar sowings may be made late in the summer or 
early in the fall for autumn and early winter use. The 




Fig. 63. Seedlings of beet. Natural size 



firmest and best roots may be stored for winter in pits 
or in the cellar in boxes of earth or moss. 

Young beets are much used for greens. They are 
rarel}^ grown especially for this purpose, but the seed 
is sown thick and the thinnings are sold in bunches or 
in small packages. The whole plant, root and top, is thus 
used as a pot-herb. There are certain kinds of beetii 
that produce thick leaves rather than roots, but these 
are essentially leaf crops and are discussed under that 
head. See Chard. 

Early beets are usually sold in bunches of about six, 



280 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



but the later crop is sold in baskets or barrels. The 
price depends much on the earliness and freshness of 
the product. 

Sow in drills as soon as the ground is ready, and thin to 6-8 
inches apart, using the thinnings for greens. The drills should be 
far enough apart to admit of wheel-hoe tillage, — 12-18 inches. 
Field beets should be far enough apart for horse tillage. Five to 
eight pounds of seed is required for an acre ; 1 ounce sows 75 to 
100 feet of drill. Average crop is 300-400 bushels per acre. 

Good early and mid-season beets are Egyptian, Bassano, 
Eclipse, Bastian, Columbia, Edmand. A standard winter variety 
is Long Blood. There are many other good varieties. 

The beet has descended from Beta vulgaris, one of the Cheno- 
podiacea3, and which is a perennial herb of the seacoasts of Eu- 
rope. It has been cultivated for more than 2,000 years. The 
thick root is the result of domestication. The beet is grown both 
for its foliage and root. The thick-rooted form which we know 
as beet is called beet- root in England. Of foliage beets there are 
two types: chard, used for greens ; ornamental beets, used in 
flower gardens and lawns for their bright and colored foliage. Of 
root beets there are three types: garden beets; mangel-wurzels, 
or stock beets; sugar beets. The cultivated beet has very little 
resemblance to its wild prototype. For an accessible horticultural 
history of the beet, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., 1887, pp. 433-436. 

In 1889 (Annals Hort.), 42 varieties of garden beet and 31 of 
mangels were offered by Ainerican seedsmen. In 1887, Goff re- 
duced the garden beets to 23 .varieties (6th Rep. N. Y. State Exp. 
Sta., pp. 120-132). The classification was based on shape and 
color : 

A. Root oblate or top -shaped. V 
B. Color red. 
BB. Color yellow. 
AA. Root oval. 

(Color as above. ) 
AAA. Root half -long. 

(Color as above.) 
AAAA. Root long- conical. 

(Color divisions.) 



Beet — Carrot 



281 



Three diseases of beets are sometimes serious, particularly on 
sugar beets: root-rot, for which apply lime to the soil; leaf- spot, 
kept in check by spray of Bordeaux mixture ; scab, prevented by 
not growing beets on the infested land. See Duggar, Bull. 163, 
Cornell Exp. Sta. 

CARROT 

Very clean and mellow soil, particularly one that tvill 
not ^^bake^^ over the seeds, and close attention to surface 
tillage, are the prime requisites for the culture of car- 
rots. The crop is easy to grow after the plants are well 
established. 

Carrots are of two leading types: those grown for 
spring or early summer use, and those grown as a main 
crop and used in the winter. Carrots are stored like 
beets and other root crops. The main -season carrots are 
not cultivated very extensively as a vegetable -gardening 
crop, although they are used to a considerable extent for 
stock-feeding. Young, fresh carrots may be shipped 
from the southern states so cheaply that there is rela- 
tively little need of storing the roots for market. Aside 
from this, the American people eat relatively few car- 
rots, and the trade in them is small. 

The seeds of carrots are small and germinate slowly. 
Unless the soil is in good condition and free of weeds 
the young plants are likely to suffer. It is well to sow 
seeds of radishes, turnips or other quick -germinating 
things with the carrots in order to mark the row and to 
break the crust. 

The carrot is a hardy plant, and the early varieties 
may be sown as soon as the land is fit in the spring. 



282 The Brinciples of Vegetable - Gar dealing 

The late varieties may be sown as late as the middle of 
June in the northern states. Carrots mature rather 
slowly, and even the early varieties require from 2 to 
2/2 months to bring them to edible size, unless they are 
aided in their growth by a covering of sash. On land 




Fig. 64. Seedlings of carrot. Natural size. 



that is to be used for late carrots, it is well to sow 
some early stuff in the spring, as radishes, and to keep 
the ground clean until it is needed for the carrots. The 
early weeds will then be killed, and the young carrot 
plants will have an opportunity to grow. In their early 
stages, carrot plants are shallow -rooted and delicate, 
and the tillage should be very carefully done. 

Carrots are sown in drills from 10 to 18 inches apart, depend- 
ing largely on the variety and the method to be employed in 
tilling. The early crop is thinned to 4 or 5 inches apart in the 
row, and the late, large varieties to 7 or 8 inches. If it is not de- 
sired to plant the late varieties for fall use, one may use the early 
varieties for that purpose, sowing the seed late in July or even the 



Carrot Notes 



283 



first of August. Unless the soil is in very fine tilth and moist, 
however, it is difficult to secure a stand as late in the season as 
this. Carrot seed should always be sown thickly in order to allow 
for any failure in germination. For an acre, 2 lbs. of seed is re- 
quired; for 300 feet of drill, 1 oz., if the seed is fresh. 

The stump -rooted or half -long varieties are now chiefly 
grown. These are early or mid-season varieties fit for using either 
early in the season or late in summer. The Early Forcing is one 
of the best for growing in hotbeds or coldframes, or for grow- 
ing in the fall for home use. The Half-long Danvers is one of tha 
reliable mid- season varieties. For late or main- season crop, the 
Long Scarlet is excellent ; and for stock-feeding the Long Orange 
and Long White are used. These latter varieties are also good for 
home use, although wh.en they are allowed to reach their full size 
they are likely to be somewhat coarse in texture. A good crop 
of carrots is 200-300 bushels per acre. 

The carrot is an annual or sometimes a biennial. The early 
varieties will send up flower- stalks the same year if left in the 
ground ; but the roots of the late varieties must be stored during 
the winter, and set out the following spring, when they will 
quickly run to seed. The carrot has run wild extensively in the 
eastern part of the country, where it is a bad weed in meadows 
and along the roadsides. It loses the fleshy character of root 
and is a partial biennial or an annual. It inhabits dry and poor 
fields. Giving attention to securing more grass is the best rem- 
edy. It is rarely troublesome in cultivated fields. 

For accounts of plant-breeding with carrots, consult Leveque 
de Vilmorin, "Notice sur 1' Amelioration de la Garotte Sauvage," 
Trans. London Hort. Soc, Ser. 2, vol. 2, p. 348; republished in 
Paris in a new edition in 1886. See, also, Carriere, Gardeners' 
Chronicle, 1865, p. 1154. 

The carrot is one of the Parsley family, Umbelliferae. It is 
known to botanists as Daucus Carota. It has been in cultivation 
for more than 2,000 years. Its native country is probably Europe 
and western Asiaj. See Sturtevant, Amer. Naturalist, 1887, pp. 
527-532, for history. 

In 1887, Goff (6th Rep. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., p. 133-146] made 



284 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

a classification of the varieties of carrots based on shape, size and 
color of root, as follows : 

A. Root distinctly pointed. 

B. Root long, — the length exceeding 4 times the diameter. 
C. White, 
cc. Yellow. 
CCC. Orange or red. 
cccc. Purple. 

BB. Root half -long, length not exceeding 4 times the diameter. 
(Color divisions.) 
AA. Root distinctly premorse, or blunt at the lower end. 
(Root and color divisions.) 

He reduced the varieties to 28. In 1889, American seedsmen 
offered 33 varieties. 

There are no serious insects or diseases. 



TURNIP -ROOTED CHERVIL 

This is a small -rooted plant, something like carrot, 
except that the roots are gray or nearly black and of 
different flavor. The seed does not germinate well if 
kept dry over winter. It is, therefore, sown in August 
or September, although it usually does not germinate 
until spring. Otherwise the culture is like that for car- 
rot. The root is used as carrot is. It matures in early 
summer, but improves by remaining in the ground. It 
is little known in America. 

Tuberous or Turnip -rooted Chervil is Choerophyllum 
hulbosimi, a native of southern Europe, and one of the 
Umbelliferae. Salad Chervil is a different plant (see 
Chap. 14). 



Turnip 



285 



TURNIP 

Cool, short season and a moist soil are the requisites 
for best turnips. Ttie seed germinates quickly. Hardy. 

The true turnips usually have flat or very oblate 
roots, soft white flesh, and green, rough-hairy leaves. 
Fig. 66. They do not require the full season in which 
to mature, and are therefore grown as a spring or 
fall crop. The herbage is very hardy, withstanding 




Fig. 65. Seedlings of turnip. Two-thirds natural size. 



considerable frost without injury. For early use tur- 
nips are sown as soon as the land can be prepared in the 
spring. They should give roots large enough for the 
table in six to ten weeks. For the fall crop, seeds may 
be sown in the northern states as late as the last week 
in July, and in the middle states as late as the middle of 
August. The plants will grow until heavy freezing 
weather, at which time they may be pulled and stored 
as other roots are. Unlike parsnips and salsify, the 
roots will not stand hard freezing. 

The value of the turnip as an article of food lies 



286 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

very largely in its tenderness and succulence. If the 
plant grows slowly, it is woody, stringy and bitter. 
In order to secure a quick growth, the land should be 
rich and moist, and in fine tilth. 

The turnip is one of the easiest of all plants to grow, 
except that it is very seriously attacked by the root 
maggot. This pest can be kept in check by injecting 
bisulfide of carbon into the ground about the plants, 
but this labor is usually more than the turnips are 
worth. It is better, therefore, to grow turnips on land 
that has not been infested ; or, if there is no such 
land on the premises, it is advisable not to grow tur-, 
nips until the insects are starved out. 

For garden use, particularly for the early season, turnips are 
sown in drills 10 to 18 inches apart. In drills, use 1 ounce of 
seed for every 200-300 feet, or 1 pound to the acre: broadcast, 
use 2-3 pounds to the acre. The plants should be thinned until 
they stand at first 3 inches apart ; and then, as some of the young 
roots are removed for eating, until the main crop allows a foot 
of space for the development of each full -sized tuber. The late 
or fall crop is often sown broadcast, particularly if it is to be 
used for stock-feeding. Better results are secured, however, if 
the plants are grown in rows. For general field purposes, the 
rows are placed from 18-30 inches apart, so as to allow of wheel- 
hoe or even horse -hoe tillage. If the plants are grown from 
broadcast seeding, the land should be in excellent condition and 
free from weeds, as no subsequent tillage is possible. It is an 
adage in many parts of the northern states that 

On the 25tli of July 
Sow turnips, wet or dry. 

Staple kinds are Milan, Purple-Top Munich, Teltow (excellent 
for home use). 600-1,000 bushels may be grown to the acre. 

The turnip is one of the Cruciferge or mustard family. It is 
known as Brassica Rapa. It is an annual plant if the seeds are 



Turnip 



287 



sown in the spring. The plant is ordinarily regarded as biennial. 
The turnip sometimes runs wild as a weed and then loses its 
fleshy root and is annual. Native to Eur- Asia. It has been 
cultivated from earliest times. See history by Sturtevant in Amer. 




Fig. 66. Turnip. Fig. 67. Rutabaga. 



Nat., Sept., 1891, pp. 803-806. For discussion of the botany of tur- 
nips and allies, see Bailey, "Garden and Forest," 1897, pp. 321, 322. 

Goff makes 41 varieties of turnips (6th Rep. N. Y. State Exp. 
Sta., pp. 168-190), including rutabagas. In 1889, American seed 
dealers sold 50 varieties classed as turnips, and 31 classed as 
rutabagas. Goff's classification was based on form and color: 

A. Root distinctly conical, or cylindri- conical. 
B. White. 
BB. Yellow. 
BBB. Grayish, brown or black. 
AA. Root oval. 

(Color divisions.) 
AAA. Root spherical or top-shaped. 
(Color divisions.) 
AAAA. Root distinctly flattened, 
(Color divisions.) 



288 The Principles of Vegetable' Oar dening 



RUTABAGA 

The requirements for the growing of rutabagas are 
the same as for the growing of turnips, except that the 
plants require a month to six weeks^ longer time in 
which to mature. 

Rutabaga differs from the turnip in having a denser 
and mostly yellow -fleshed root, which is rounded or 
elongated and not distinctly flat, the leaves glaucous- 
blue and not hairy, the crown long and leafy, the roots 
arising from the under side of the tuber as well as from 
the tap-root. Compare Figs. 66 and 67. It is a richer 
vegetable than the turnip. It is grown either as a spring 
or a fall crop and is used also for stock-feeding. As in 
the case of the turnip, the product that is grown for 
stock is raised from summer -sown seeds. For the main 
crop, the seeds are usually sown as early as the first of 
July or the latter part of June. 

The rutabaga, known in England also as Swedish turnip and 
turnip-rooted cabbage and in French as chou-navet, is Brassica 
campestriSj native of Eur-Asia. 

PARSNIP 

A cool, very deep rich soil and one that does not 
^^baJce^^ over the seeds, and a full length season, are the 
requisites for parsnip -growing. 

The parsnip occupies the land during the whole sea- 
son. The seeds are sown in the spring as early as the 
ground is fit. The roots may be harvested in the fall 
and stored in the cellar or in pits, or they may be left iu 



Parsnip 



289 



the ground until spring. The hard freezing of winter 
does not injure them. In fact, many people believe that 
the quality of the roots is improved by freezing. This 
notion, however, is unfounded, for if the roots are not 
allowed to shrivel during the winter, their quality is as 
good as when allowed to remain in the ground. If one 
is growing parsnips for the market, it is important that 
at least a large part of the crop be stored for the winter, 




Fig. 68. Parsnip seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



for the highest prices are usually secured before the 
roots can be dug from the field in the spring. 

The parsnip makes a long- cylindrical, tapering root: 
therefore the ground should be deep. Much of the 
value of the parsnip as a market crop is destroyed 
when the roots are branchy and forking. Land that is 
shallow and lumpy tends to make such roots. Good 
parsnip roots should be 1 foot long, and straight, clean 
and comely. 

The seeds of parsnips germinate rather slowly, and retain 
their vitality only a year or two; therefore they should be sown 
thick. It is well to plant with them some quick- germinating 
seeds in order to break the ground and to mark the row. Seeds 
fire usually sown in drills far enough apart to allow of wheel -hoe or 

S 



290 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



horse tillage, and the young plants are thinned to stand about 
6 to 8 inches apart in the row. Subsequent treatment consists 
only in keeping the land well tilled and free from weeds. There 
are no serious pests. One ounce of fresh seed is used to 200-250 
feet of drill; 4-6 lbs. is generally used to the acre. A good crop 
is 500-600 bushels to the acre, but more than this is secured under 
the best conditions. 

The parsnip [Pastinaca sativa) is one of the UmbelliferaB fam- 
ily, and is allied to carrot, celery and parsley. It is a native of 
the Old World. It is biennial. The flower- stalks arise from the 
roots that were produced the year before. In some cases, when 
the season is dry and long, roots may send up flower- stalks the 
very year in which they grow. The parsnip has run wild as a 
weed in old fields. It is then a biennial. It is not a serious 
weed in well tilled lands, and this fact suggests the proper treat- 
ment if it should become a nuisance. The strong flower- stalks of 
the parsnip are said to be slightly poisonous by contact to some 
persons. 

Goff (2d Kept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., p. 180, and 4th Kept., p. 
139), reduced the varieties of parsnips to 3. In 1889 (Annals Hort. ) 
American dealers offered 15 named varieties. The Hollow Crown 
and Student parsnips are the standard varieties. For an account 
of the experimental origin of the Student parsnip, see Buekman, 
Gardeners' Chronicle, 1862, p. 721. For a history of the parsnip, 
consult Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., Jan., 1890, pp. 46-48. 

"In the parsnip the tap-root is very long, and tapers very 
slowly after the first few inches in depth. In a plant of the Long 
Hollow Crown variety, examined September 17, we traced the tap- 
root downward a distance of 30 inches, beyond which it was too 
delicate to follow. Branches leave the tap-root throughout its 
length, many starting out below the clay line. One of these, at a 
depth of 2 feet, we followed a distance of 7 inches through very 
stiff clay. The fibrous roots in the upper layers of the soil are 
numerous, but short, the longest ones appearing to extend but 
about 14 inches from the main root. Considering the proportion 
of the roots that lie deep in the soil, the parsnip is a deep-rooting 
plant."— Gq)y, 3d Rept N. Y. State Exp. Sta., p. 311. 



Salsify 



291 



SALSIFY 

JDeep^ rich cool soil and the full-length season are 
required for the production of good salsify. 

The salsify plant is grown for cooking only, not for 
stock. The seed is sown in drills as soon as the ground 
is ready in spring and the young plants thinned to 4 or 




Fig. 69. Salsify seedlings, Natural size. 



5 inches apart. The plant is perfectly hardy and the 
roots may be left in the ground over winter, as they are 
not injured by frost. If one desires to use the plant 
during winter, however, or wishes to find the best 
markets, a large part of the roots should be stored in 
the cellar or in pits. There are no serious pests of the 
salsify plant, and the seeds germinate readily. These 
seeds are really fruits, and they are long and stick-like, 
and are rather difficult to sow w^ith the seed drill. 



292 TJie Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Salsify is one of the few members of the Oompositaa family 
which produces edible parts. It is Tragopogon porrifoUus of the 
botanists. It is biennial. It has been comparatively little improved 
by domestication. There is a relatively large-rooted form known 
as the Mammoth Sandwich Island, and another called the Im- 
proved French. Even of the largest varieties, the roots are small, 
rarely more than 2 or 3 inches in diameter at the crown. Be- 
cause of its flavor of oysters, it is commonly known as the oyster 
plant or vegetable oyster. For his- 
tory, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., 
July, 1890, pp. 635, 636. Salsify 
sometimes runs wild, and then loses 
the fleshy character of the root. It 
makes a straight stalk 2-3 feet tall, 
and bears large handsome purple 
flowers, which close about midday. 
It is native to southern Europe. 
There are no serious enemies. 

An ounce of salsify seed sows 
about 70 feet of drill; 8-10 pounds 
sow an acre: 200-300 bushels per 
acre is a good crop. 



SCORZONERA, OR BLACK 
SALSIFY 



The cultivation of this plant 
is in all wa^^s like that of sal- 
sify. It is perennial, however, 
and the roots continue to en- 
large without becoming inedi- 
ble if left in the ground for 
more than one year. 




Fig. 70. Spanish salsify. 

Hispanicus. 



Scolymus 



Scorzonera Hispanica (Compositae) has a long black root, yellow 
flowers, light-colored seeds, and broader leaves than salsify. It is 



Scolymus 



298 



used in the same way as satsify. It is little known in this country, 
but it is a good addition to the home garden. History by Sturte- 
vant in Amer. Nat., July, 1890, p. 643. 

SCOLYMUS, OR SPANISH SALSIFY 

Cultivated like salsify, and the roots used for the 
same purposes. Fig. 70. 

"A vegetable that promises to be of considerable value in 
this country, if once generally introduced, is the so-called Span- 
ish salsify, a native of southern Europe. I have grown this for 
two years. It makes a root much like salsify, except that it is 
much lighter colored and considerably longer. Its flavor is less 
pronounced than that of the salsify, but when carefully cooked 
it possesses a very agreeable quality which is somewhat inter- 
mediate between that of the salsify and parsnip. It is adapted 
to all the methods of cooking employed for those vegetables. 
The particular value of the vegetable, aside from affording a va- 
riety in the kitchen garden, is its large size and productiveness 
as compared with the salsify. We raise almost twice the crop 
upon a given area than we can secure from salsify, and no 
doubt it could be sold for that vegetable in the general market. 
The seeds are much easier to handle and sow than those of the 
salsify. It is sown and cultivated in exactly the same manner 
as that vegetable, and can be dug either in the fall or spring. 
Fig, 70 shows a good root. Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of 
the plant is the very prickly leaves, which may make it un- 
pleasant to handle. But on the whole, it is worth introduction 
into American gardens. Seeds are offered by some American 
seedsmen. 

"Spanish salsify (Scolymus Hispanicus) is closely allied to 
the cardoon and artichoke, and its young leaves are sometimes 
bleached and eaten like cardoons." — Bailey^ in Bull. 87^ Cornell 
Exp. Sta. {1891). 



294 The Principles of Vegetable - Gardening 



HORSE-RADISH 

A very deep^ cool, rich soil and late-season growth are 
the essentials for success iu the raising of horse-radish. 
It is perfectly hardy. Propagated by root cuttings. 

Horse-radish is grown for its root, which has a 
pungent quality that makes it prized as a relish. It is 
perennial, the roots enlarging and becoming woody for 
several years. As a commercial crop, however, it is 
grown wholly as an annual, being propagated from 
cuttings of the small side roots. These cuttings are 
made from the trimmings when the roots are dressed 
for market. A good cutting should be from the size of a 
lead pencil up to that of one^s little finger. It is usu- 
ally made from 4 to 7 inches long, and the lower end 
is cut slanting in order to designate the right end up. 
These cuttings or sets are tied in bundles and stored in 
the cellar or pit, as the roots are. They may be planted 
at the first opening of spring, but since the plant makes 
the larger part of its growth late in the season, it is 
customary to hold them rather late and to plant them 
with some other crop They are often planted in the 
rows of early cabbages or beets. When the cabbages 
are off, the horse-radish takes the land. The sets are 
dropped right end up in furrows or holes, which are 
made with a strong -pointed stick or crowbar. They 
are usually placed in a somewhat slanting position, 
although the upright position is probably as good. The 
top of the cutting usually stands 3 to 5 inches below 
the top of the soil. This deep planting delays the 
appearing of the plants and thus prevents interference 



Horse - Radish 



295 



with the combination -crop. The rows are far enough 
apart to allow of horse tillage, and the plants should 
stand from 12 to 18 inches apart in the row. The 
horse-radish plant will stand much abuse. If it grows 
so rapidly as to interfere with the cabbages or other 




Fig. 71. Set planted 
slanting. A. 



Fig. 72. Set planted Fig. 73. Result of plant 
wrong end up. D. set wrong end up. D. 

plants with which it is planted, the tops may be cut 
off two or three times early in the season. After the 
other crop is removed, the land is given merely good 
surface tillage. Sometimes horse-radish is made the 
main crop, and other crops are grown incidentally. In 
this case, it is planted in rows 3 to 4 feet apart on 
ridges, and spinach, early beets or lettuce are grown 
on the sides of the ridges. 

The horse-radish will grow until freezing weather. 



Horse 'Radish 



297 



It is best to plow out the roots in the fall and to store 
or sell them. As the horse-radish is likely to become 
a bad weed, it is necessary that all the small roots 
be taken out of the land. When the crop is harvested, 
therefore, all the loose roots are picked from the furrow 
and destroyed. If these fur- 
rows are left open until spring 
many more of the roots will 
be exposed, and they may 
then be removed. Subsequent 
plowing and dragging will 
often expose still others. It 
is usually impossible to get 
all the roots out of the land, 
but if the ground is occupied 
with other crops and is kept 
in good tillage, the horse- 
radish should not become a 
nuisance. 

The roots are washed and 
trimmed before they are sent 
to market. For special trade, 
the roots may be tied in 
bunches of 6 or 8, but the 
crop is generally marketed in 
barrels or in bulk. 

In some parts of the coun- 
try the growing of horse- 
radish is coming to be an important industry. Since 
the roots must be grated before they are used, it is nec- 
essary that they be long, symmetrical, uniform and as 




Fig. 79. Horse-radish graters. 



298 The Principles of Vegetable - Gardening 



large as possible in order to fit the grating machines. 
Fig. 79. In fact, small and branchy horse-radish can 
scarcely be sold at any price. Although it grows in 
old gardens with no care whatever, the plant must have 
deep, rich soil and good care if a marketable crop is 
produced. The price per ton varies from ten to fifty 
dollars, and from tw^o to four tons should be raised on 
an acre, the latter quantity when the ground is deep 
and rich and when the plants do not suffer for moisture. 

Horse-radish, Cochlearia Armoracia^ is one of the Crueiferse 
or Mustard family. It has been cultivated for a thousand years 
and more, probably having been spread from eastern Europe. 
It is now a common weed about old homesteads. The early leaves 
are pinnatisect, but the later ones are broad and only toothed. 
The plant blooms profusely, bearing many small white flowers in a 
large cluster which stands 1-2 feet above the ground. Seed -pods 
are frequently formed, but good seed is practically unknown. 
The plant is always grown from pieces of the roots. For domestic 
use it is grated and placed in vinegar. The grated product should 
be kept in a tight vessel, for it loses its strength on exposure. 
There are no horticultural varieties. For history, see Sturtevant, 
Amer. Nat., May, 1888, pp. 431-32. 

Horse-radish will grow from a very small root -cutting (even 
if 3^ inch or less long), but the resulting plants are usually small. 
General experience has designated the 6 -inch cutting as the best 
under usual conditions, although experiments are needed in respect 
to the best kind of cutting for particular soils and circumstances. 
In old home grounds, horse-radish is allowed to remain year after 
year. This is well enough for the small home supply, but it 
does not pay commercially nor does it give a product of the best 
quality. It is customary to plant the old crowns, but sprawling, 
crooked roots are the result. 

At Cornell University the following experiments have been 
made (never published) with horse-radish cuttings (1890-91): 



Horse - Radish Experiments 



299 



Experiment I 

(Soil a clay loam) 

1. The cuttings — 

A. Cuttings 1-2 inches long, made from scraggly and much- 

divided roots, planted slanting. 

B. Cuttings 1-2 inches long, made from straight roots. 

c. Commercial sets, 6-8 inches long, planted top end up. 

D. Commercial sets, 6-8 inches long, planted bottom end up. 

E. Commercial sets, 6-8 inches long, planted horizontally. 

F. Cuttings 3^ inch long, from side roots. 

G. Cuttings 1 inch long, from side roots. 

2. The results — 

A. Crop very poor, the roots being long, small and prongy. 

The crop came up well, and the plants were vigorous. 
Fig. 71 shows a plant six weeks old. 

B. Roots small, but fairly straight. Decidedly better crop 

than A. 

c. Crooked, irregular, rather short, but better than D and E. 

D. Few good roots, but better than E. The roots show clearly 

that the horse-radish cutting knows when it stands on its 
head. On July 4, the plants looked as in Fig. 72, the 
shoots coming from the lower (top) end of the cutting. 
Fig. 73 shows the final product. The plants came up 
quickly, and the rows were indistinguishable, when 
growing, from c. 

E. Very branchy and worthless, with scarcely a marketable 

root. Fig. 74. The plants made the best stand of any 
in the whole experiment. 

F. Roots long and finger-like, worthless for market. Fig. 75 

shows one of the young plants six weeks after planting, 
and Fig. 76 is a full-grown root. The plants came up 
slowly and made a poor stand. 

G. A good straight lot, better than any other. The plants 

came up rather slowly and the stand was not the best. 
Fig. 77 shows a young plant, and Fig. 78 a mature root. 



300 The Principles of Yegetahle- Qar dealing 



Experiment II 

(Clay loam) 

1. The cuttings— 

J. Commercial sets, 6-8 inches long, as large as the end of 
one's little finger. Set slanting, with top of cutting 
near the surface. 

K. Commercial sets, slanting, with top of cutting 3 inches deep. 

L. Commercial sets cut in two, — 3-4 inches long. Set slant- 
ing, 3 inches deep. 

M. Commercial sets cut in two, slanting, 6 inches deep. 

N. Commercial sets cut into 1-inch lengths, and dropped in 
furrow 3 inches deep. 

o. Commercial sets, 4-9 inches long. Set vertical, with top 

of cutting at surface of ground, 
p. Commercial sets, vertical, 3 inches deep. 
Q. Commercial sets, slanting, 7 inches deep. 
R. Commercial sets, vertical, 3 inches deep, bottom end up. 

s. Sets 4-8 inches long, made of prongs of roots and about 
% inch thick. Set vertical, 3-4 inches deep. 

T. Sets as in s, but cut in X-inch lengths and sown in furrow 
3 inches deep. 

u. Old roots, 4-8 inches long, 1-2 inches thick at top, made 
from roots 2 or 3 years old. 

V. Crowns from roots 8 or more years old. 

2. The results — 

^' I The two crops not distinguishable, both good. 

L. 1 More branching and prongy than J and K. Very few plants 
M. i of M came up. 

N. A very straight lot, but roots rather small. Perhaps a 
richer soil would have made up the size. 

o p ") 

Q*' R* ]^^^^ little difference between these four lots. All good, 
s. A good lot, hardly distinguishable from J and K. 
T. Roots not so straight and even as N. 

u.l Very prongy and misshapen; valueless for commercial 
V. j purposes. 



CHAPTER X 



TUBEE CROPS 
Potato, Sweet Potato. 

The tuber crops, as the term is understood in this 
writing, are two, the common or Irish potato, and 
the sweet potato. The former is staple in the North 
and t-he latter in the South. The two are so unlike 
that it is not expedient to endeavor to state principles 
that shall apply to both. 

POTATO 

Deeply pulverized cool soil holding much capillary 
moisture and rich in potash^ deep and early planting, 
level culture, frequent surface tillage to conserve moisture, 
spraying to insure healthy foliage: these are requisites 
of the best potato culture. The potato is propagated 
by means of tubers. It thrives best in a relatively cool 
climate: in the South, it is successful onlyas a spring 
and fall crop, for the midsummer season is too continu- 
ously hot. 

In most cases a heavy yield of potatoes is largely a 
question of moisture. If planted late, the crop loses 
the benefit of much of the winter precipitation, since the 
moisture passes from the soil early in the season unless 
the land receives frequent surface tillage. Planting on 

(301) 



302 The Principles of YegetaMe- Gardening 

ridges or hills wastes the soil moisture in most cases. 
"Hilling up^' is often necessary, however, because the 
land is not deep enough to allow the tubers to grow 
well below the surface. The ground should be such as 
to allow the tubers to be planted at least four inches 
beneath the level. If the potatoes are dropped in a deep 
furrow, the earth is plowed over them, and the surface 
may be harrowed two or three times before the plants 




Fig 80. A potato plant in deep soil. The old seed-piece is seen 
near tlie bottom. 

are up, thus conserving moisture and destroying weeds. 
Land should have been well prepared before the plant- 
ing in order to render plant -food available and to make 
it retentive of moisture. Figs. 80 and 81 (both directly 
from nature) show the habit of the potato plant. 

From five to eight light surface tillings are required 
during the season in order to save the moisture. Even 
after the vines have begun to spread and to cover the 
ground, tillage may be necessary in a dry year. 

The early crop, for market -gardening use, is secured 



Early Potatoes 303 

by (1) selecting early" soil and site; (2) by preparing 
the land the fall before, either by means of special plow- 
ing or by growing a late -tilled crop; (3) by using 
quickly available concentrated fertilizers; (4) by choos-^ 
ing early varieties ; (5) by sprouting the potatoes in a 




Fig. 81. A hill of potatoes in stiff clay soil. The tubers are too near 
the surface. The old seed-piece is at A. 



warm place before planting (before the tubers are cut), 
allowing the sprouts to become 3-6 inches long. 

In the southern states, the common or Irish potato 
(also called "round potato " and " white potato") is a 
minor crop in general farm operations. The crop must 
be grown either early or late in the season in order to 



304 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



avoid the long, hot summer. It is then difl&cult to keep 
the potatoes from the spring crop until the next spring, 
or even until it is time to plant the second crop in 
August (in the Gulf states). "Seed'' is commonly 
secured from the North, and only a spring crop is 
grown for the northern market. 

The potato is inveterately attacked by the potato- 
bug, flea-beetle, and various blights. Arsenic, as in 
Paris green, is a specific for the bug, and Bordeaux 
mixture for the true blight or rot. For the flea -beetle 
there is no sure remedy, but it may be kept away to 
a great extent by heavy spraying with Bordeaux mix- 
ture. Much of the so-called blight is chargeable to this 
insect. There is no vegetable -gardening crop for which 
spraying is so imperative as for the potato. For scab, 
grow the crop on uninfected land and use clean seed; 
or if the seed is suspected, soak it after cutting in cor- 
rosive sublimate solution or formalin. 

Nowadays potatoes are planted in drills or continuous fur- 
rows, which are 3-3X f^^^ apart. Single pieces of tubers are 
dropped at intervals of 12-18 inches. If the pieces are cut to one 
strong eye and dropped at above distances, from 8-10 bushels will 
be required to plant an acre. Many people use too little seed. 
The yield of potatoes averages about 75 bushels per acre, but 
with forethought and good tillage and some fertilizer, the yield 
should run from 200-300 bushels, and occasional yields will much 
exceed the latter figure. In large -area operations potatoes are 
planted and harvested by machinery, or by specially made plows. 
Fig. 82. There are various devices for sorting them, one of which 
is shown in Fig. 82, i. and another in Fig. 83. 

The size in which pieces of the seed tuber should be cut has 
been the subject of much controversy, but the question is easy of 
solution if careful and comparable experiments are made. Arthur 



Fig. 82. Potato implements and machinery. 

a, Aspinwall potato cutter; &, Seofleld Jr. planter; c, Aspinwall planter; d, Gos- 
lee tobacco rigger and potato coverer; 6, Hitchcock potato digger; Planet 
Jr. digger; gr, Planet Jr. sweet potato digger; h, Scofield Jr. digger; i, As- 
pinwall sorter; j, Hoovei potato digger. 



T 



306 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



has shown (Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., 1891, p. 11; Bull. 42, 
Purdue Univ.) that the unit in such tests should not be the num- 
ber of eyes to the piece, but the size of the piece. The piece 




Fig. 83. A potato sorter. 



contains food. The more food the stronger the initial growth of 
the plant: and the stronger the initial growth, the better the crop, 
other things being equal. But if the piece is too large it contains 
so many eyes that there will be too many stalks to appropriate the 
food and to struggle with each other. The pieces on the tip or 
"seed end" may contain several eyes, but those from the other 
parts of the tuber usually should contain only one or two eyes. 
See Fig. 84. Seed should not be cut any considerable time in ad- 
vance of planting unless it is rolled in plaster. 

The varieties of potatoes are numerous and poorly defined, 
and it is not worth the while to enumerate any of them here. In 
the year 1889 the seed merchants of the United 
States are known to have offered at least 889 va- 
rieties (Annals Hort.). Because of variation and 
inattention to selection, varieties of potatoes soon 
run out (see "Survival of the Unlike"). 

One of the most interesting chapters in the 
A good cutting or history of pestilential diseases of plants is afforded 
seed-piece. virulent spread of potato blight. It caused 

the famine in Ireland in 1846. It overran this country. Periodi- 
cally it is serious at the present day, although it cannot with- 
stand Bordeaux mixture when the material is applied early and 




Potatoes in the South 



307 




Fig. 85. 



A potato tuber is 
eyes or buds. 



a stem with 



with a purpose. For an early American inquiry into this disease, 
see Charles P. Bosson, "Observations on the Potato, and a Remedy 
for the Potato Plague," Bos- 
ton, 18i6. 

On keeping potatoes in 
the South from the spring 
crop to the fall crop, McKay 
makes the following discus- 
sion (in Bull. 54, Miss. Exp. 
Station) : " If exposed to the 
hot sun a few hours Irish 
potatoes will become blis- 
tered. To prevent this, dig 
on cloudy days or else ar- 
range to remove to a shady 
place or cover in some way 
shortly after they are dug. Several methods of keeping potatoes 
during the hot summer months are practiced, and with varying 
success. Upon examination it will be found that, as a rule, 

those left in the field, scattered 
through the soil, keep better than 
those that are carefully housed. 
Taking this lesson from nature, we 
have tried the method of bedding 
the potatoes in the field, somewhat 
after the usual plan of bedding sweet 
potatoes for growing slips, and with 
good success. We are careful to see 
that the potatoes are covered to the 
depth of 6 or 7 inches with dirt, and 
that the bed is well drained. We 
have practiced the same method of 
bedding the potatoes in the shade 
of spreading trees, and on the cellar 
floor. A cool, shady situation is bet- 
Pig. 86. A potato placed in a jar ^^^^ the open field. We have 
of water will throw out shoots, 

The food is in the potato. had much better success with pota- 




308 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



toes covered with soil than with those spread out in open air in the 
cellar, or under trees where we covered with leaves. In no event 
should the potatoes be piled or heaped together, so long as warm 
weather continues. If potatoes intended for the table are exposed 
to the light for any considerable length of time they will turn 
greenish in color and become unwholesome for food. If not spread 
in a dark place they should be covered with leaves, straw or dirt." 

The potato {Solanum tiiherosum) is native to temperate parts 
of Chile and northward to southern Colorado. The northern form 
differs little from main type. It is known as var. horeale. It was 




Fig. 87. New potatoes growing from an old one. 



probably first taken from the Andean region. It was in cultivation 
by aborigines on the discovery of America. For history, see 
DeCandolle's "Origin of Cultivated Plants;" Sturtevant, in Amer. 
Nat., April, 1890, pp. 315-318; Gardeners^ Chronicle, Oct. 30 and 
Dec. 4, 1886 (being a report of the potato tercentenary; also see 
The Garden, vol. 30, pp. 530, 535). Rev. Chauncey E. Goodrich, of 
Utica, N. Y., made an effort, in the middle of the century, to breed 
blight-proof varieties from newly imported native stock from 
South America. His experiments are of great historic importance. 

For a botanical account of the species allied to the potato, see 
J. G. Baker, "A Review of the Tuber-bearing Species of So- 
lanum," Journ. Linn. Soc. xx: 489. For a sketch of the Mexican 
wild potato {Solamm tuberosum), see Bull. 49, Cornell Exp. Sta. 
For an account of grafting potatoes on tomatoes, and vice versa, 
see Bull. 61, Cornell Exp, Sta. 



Potato Diseases 



309 



The potato tuber is a thickened stem, with eyes or buds 
(usually more than one bud in each eye). Fig. 85. The tuber is a 
storehouse of food, largely starch. The sprouts feed on this food 
for a time. Fig. 86. In the bin late in spring a potato may throw 
out a root-like stem and produce new tubers from its own sub- 
stance. Fig. 87. In some cases a tuber grows inside the old one. 

The literature of the potato is voluminous, although there is 
no single commanding book. Consult "The $100 Prize Essay on 
the Cultivation of the Potato (Wylie and Compton), pub. by 
Orange Judd Co.; T. B. Terry, "A B C of Potato Culture;'^ and 
E. S. Carman, "New Potato Culture." The "new potato culture " 
of Carman is the trench or furrow system as distinguished from 
the hilling system; this system, adapted to farm conditions, has 
recently been urged by Roberts and his colleagues in Bulls. ISO, 
140, 156, Cornell Exp. Sta. 

For some of the recent literature on insects and diseases, see: 

Stalk weevil, N. J. Bull. No. 109; Kansas No. 82. Remove 
all dead vines; stimulate plant growth if larvae appear. 

Flea-beetle, N. Y. Bull. No. 113; Cornell No. 113. Use Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

Rot, Dept. Agric. Rept. 1888, p. 337; N. H. No. 22; Cornell 
No. 113 ; Farmers' Bull. No. 91 ; N. Y. No. 123. Bordeaux 
begun before appearance. 

Early blight, Vt. Rept, 1892, pp. 66-70; Cornell No. 113, col- 
ored illus.; N. Y. No. 123; Farmers' Bull. No. 91. Use 
Bordeaux. 

Scab, Ct. Rept. 1890, pp. 81-95, 1891, pp. 153-160; Cornell 
No. 113; Farmers' Bull. No. 91. Corrosive sublimate 
(2.5 ounces in 2 gallons hot water; after 12 hours dilute 
to 15 gallons; immerse 1% hours and dry. Formalin 
(better— not poisonous) 8 fl. ounces formalin (40 per cent 
formic aldehyde) with 15 gallons water. Soak 2 hours. 

Diseases in general, Vt. No. 72. Very good r6sum6 of ten 
years' work. 

Insects, Me. No. 68, 



310 The Principles of Vegetable- Qardening 



SWEET POTATO 

A warm sunny climate, long season, loose warm soil, 
liberal supply of moisture in the growing season and a 
less supply when the tubers are maturing — these are 
some of the requirements of a good sweet potato crop. 
The plant is tender to frost. It is propagated by 
means of its tubers, usually from the slips or cuttings 
which arise when the tubers are planted in beds or 
frames. 

The sweet potato is one of the leading crops of the 
South, and it is extensively grown as far north as the 
sandy lands of New Jersey. In the northern states it 
is often grown in a small way on ridges in the garden. 

It is the custom to grow all varieties from "slips " or 
" draws, although the Spanish variety may be cut and 
planted like the Irish potato. The slips are grown in 
beds and transplanted to the field. Many growers prefer 
to plant only a small part of the field with the slips 
and the remainder with the prunings from the growth 
of these slips. Propagation is usually accomplished by 
means of slips and cuttings. (1) Slips are the sprouts 
which arise from tubers when they are planted or 
buried. Tubers of medium size are laid on a mild hot- 
bed and covered two inches deep with loose soil or leaf- 
mold. In the extreme south the tubers are sometimes 
"bedded" in loose, warm earth, without bottom heat, 
but unless the weather is settled the tubers are likely to 
rot an^ the vegetation is slow. When the shoots are 
3-5 inches high they are broken off next the tuber and 
set in the field. Roots will have formed while they were 



Sweet Potato 



311 



still attached to the tuber. Two to four crops of 
slips " or draws may be taken from one tuber. The 
tuber is usually planted whole; but large and sound 
tubers may be cut in two lengthwise and the cut side 
laid downwards, although this treatment invites decay. 
(2) Cuttings are made from the ends of vines. They 
are taken from the earliest -planted or most vigorous 
vines ; sometimes a few vines are set very early for the 
particular purpose of securing plants for the remainder 
of the field. The cutting is usually 10-12 inches long. 
The leaves are removed, except at the tip, and the 
cutting is buried directly in the soil where it is to grow 
permanently, being laid in a nearly horizontal position, 
with only an inch or so of the tip projecting. 

The sweet potato requires a deep, well-drained, sandy 
loam. The soil should be liberally supplied with well- 
rotted manure. Wood ashes is often found to be a most 
excellent fertilizer. The soil should be well prepared 
before the slips are set, so as to avoid the necessity of 
cultivating close to the roots. Clean tillage should be 
practiced until the ground is too thickly covered by the 
vines. After this large weeds should be removed with 
hand tools. The slips are set in rows about 3 feet apart, 
and the slips themselves are 18 inches apart. 

The purpose for which the crop is grown will 
determine very largely the variety, and the variety will 
determine the care necessary; e. g., the Eed Bermuda 
will grow in almost any soil and under very adverse 
conditions of climate and moisture, but the quality can- 
not be compared to that of the so-called yams. 

Immediately after the first frost the potatoes should 



312 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



be gathered. A very common method is to clear away 
the vines and then to plow up the potatoes with a " hill 
sweep'' (2 -winged furrowing plow). They are gathered 
into small piles, where they remain until removed from 



be kept dry and should be on a slightly elevated place. 

One bushel of ordinary sweet potatoes wiH give from 3,000 to 
5,000 plants, if the sprouts are taken off twice. The plants are 
usually set in drills, which are 2%-^ feet apart. The plants stand 
12-18 inches apart in the drill. At 18 x 36 inches, 9,680 plants are 
required for an acre. These should be produced by 2-3 bushels of 
"seed'^ tubers. An average good yield of sweet potatoes is 200- 
400 bashels per acre. Yields twice as high as these are sometimes 
secured. 

The sweet potato is one of the Morning-glory and Moon- 
flower tribe, Ipomoea Batatas. It has been cultivated from very 
remote times by the aborigines. It is probably native to tropical 
America, although it is widely distributed in tropical countries. 
The top is a trailing vine, which roots at the joints and bears 
variable but mostly halberd -form leaves. Some varieties have 
longer vines or tops than others, and some have short not- running 
tops, as the Vineless Yam," now popular in the South (Fig. 88). 
The sweet potato blooms only rarely, and even then it may not 
produce seeds. 

Sweet potatoes are grown very extensively in the United 
States, and they are shipped to all parts of the country, being one 




the field. The common 
method of storing is to 
bank them in a cone- 
shaped pile. This pile 
is then covered with 
hay, and this is thatched 
with cornstalks, or cov- 



Fig. 88. Vineless sweet potato. 



ered shingle - like with 
pine bark. It should 



Sweet Potato 



318 



of the common foods in all northern cities. They are little known 
to the people of central Europe. Nearly 50,000,000 bushels is 
produced annually in the United States. The largest quantities 
are grown in the Carolinas, Georgia, Texas, Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, Virginia, New Jersey. As with other crops, every state pro- 
duces the best quality, depending on where one lives. Certain 
varieties of sweet potatoes are called yams in the southern states, 
but the word "yam" properly belongs to a very different kind of 
plants, the Dioseoreas. 

In the South a soft, sugary sweet potato is desired. In the North 
a firm, dry tuber is wanted. Spanish, Sugar, Barbadoes, and Hy-' 
man are popular far south. Nansemond and Jersey are prized for 
the North. The vineless (Fig. 88), a variety with short tops or 
vines ("vineless" meaning "not running," or "bushy"),, is now a 
very popular kind. Price gives the alternative of two schemes for 
classification of varieties of sweet potatoes : 

A. Leaves entire (not lobed). 
AA, Leaves shouldered (lobed or halberd-shape at base). 
AAA. Leaves deeply cut or lobed. 

The second classification is based on the tuber: 

A. Tubers white -skinned. 
AA. Tubers dull straw color. 
AAA. Tubers light red. 
AAAA. Tubers purple. 

There are several serious fungous diseases of sweet potato ^see 
bulletins N. J, Exp. Sta.). The leaf -blight may be held in check 
by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, but the tuber diseases are 
treated to best advantage by rotation of crops and using only 
healthy tubers for seed. 

There are two special books on sweet potatoes, by Fitz and 
Price. See list, pp. 251, 259. For history, see Sturtevant, Amer. 
Nat., August, 1891, pp. 698, 699. 



CHAPTER XI 



BULB CROPS 



Onion, 

Ciboule or Welsh Onion, 

Shallot, 

Leek, 



Garlic, 
Give. 



All the bulb crops are hardy, require a cool season 
and moist, rich soil with a loose surface. Usually they 
are not seed-bed crops. They are used both as main-sea- 
son and secondary crops. They are propagated by both 
seeds and bulbs. These crops are grown chiefly for the 
underground bulbs ; but the leaves are often used in 
stews and seasonings. 

The onion is the only commercially important plant in the 
above group in this country. Garlic, leek and the others are 
known chiefly to citizens of foreign birth or to those who grow 
products for the large cities. 

The leek is the most important of these minor bulb crops, and 
it should be better known. Its flavor is usually milder than that 
of onions. The soft bulb and thick leaves are used in cookery, 
mostly as a seasoning. It is grown from seeds (Fig. 89) sown 
early in the spring. It usually requires the entire season. It is 
stored green, after the manner of celery, being set in the ground 
in the pit or cool cellar. 

Garlic is a plant of very strong flavor. It is propagated by 
"cloves," which are parts or bulbels of compound bulbs. The 
clove is comparable to one of the cores of the multiplier onion. 
The cloves are planted in early spring, and the bulbs should ma- 
ture by midsummer or fall. 



(314) 



Onion - Like Plants 



315 



Shallot is very like garlic in manner of growth, but the cloves 
are separate at maturity, whereas they are inclosed in a common 
skin in the garlic. They are mild in flavor. Cultivation as for garlic* 
Ciboule, or Welsh onion, is like a common onion without the 
bulb. It is grown for its leaves, which are used in seasoning. It 
is mild in flavor. Propagated from seeds as onions are. 
\ 




Fig. 89. Leek seedlings. Natural size. 



Give is a small perennial plant growing in dense tufts and not 
producing bulbs. The leaves are used for seasoning. It is per- 
fectly hardy. It is a neat and interesting plant for a permanent 
edging along the garden walk. It is propagated by division of the 
clumps. 

The onion-like plants may be contrasted as follows : 

A. Plant truly perennial — 

Give, Allium Schcenoprasum . Lvs. slender, hollow. 
Native to N. Europe and the northern parts of N. 
America. 



316 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

AA. Plant practically annual or biennial — 
B. Leaves cylindrical , hollow — 

Welsh onion, Allium fistulosum. Not producing 
large or evident bulbs. Siberia. 

Shallot, Allium Ascalonicum. Producing pointed 
oblong bulbs in clusters; leaves small. Syria. 

Onion, Allium Cepa. Producing bulbs of many 
sizes, shapes and colors. Native to southwest- 
ern Asia. Top onion, var. hulbellifera. Multiplier 
onion, var. multiplicans. 
BB. Leaves flattish, not holloio — 

Leek, Allium Porrum, Strong-growing, with a 
single bulb which is little thicker than the neck. 
Native to Europe. 

Garlic, Allium sativum. Bulbs small, dividing into 
bulbels or cloves. Native to Europe. 

ONION 

Cool^ rather moist and level land, soil ivith the best 
possible surface tilth and containing much guicMy avail- 
able plant-food, careful attention to the selection of seed, 
the most perfect surface tillage, are some of the essentials 
in the growing of a good crop of onions. 

Onion crops are of two general kinds: the main- or 
late -season crop, and the early spring crop. In the 
main-season crop, the onions are sold in their dry state 
and are a staple product in market quotations. In the 
early -season crop, the onions are sold in their immature 
or green state and mostly tied in bunches. 

The main -season onion crop is grown from seeds, 
and these are sown directly in the field where the crop 
is to grow. (Fig. 90.) The early spring crop is grown 
from either seeds or bulbs, usually from bulbs. These 



Propagation of Onions 317 

bulbs are of three kinds: ^^top onions,'' or bulblets that 
are produced on the top of the flower stalk, in the place 
of flowers; ^^sets" (Fig. 91), which are small onions, 
arrested in their growth; "potato onions," or "multi- 




F\g. 90. Onion seedlings. Natural size. 



pliers," which are compound bulbs, each component part 
forming a new bulb- The top onions (sometimes called 
"tree onions") and the multipliers are distinct races or 
types of onions, but sets are only the partially grown 
bulbs of any common onion which it is desired to propa- 
gate in this way. To raise sets, seeds are sown very 



318 The Prmciples of Vegetable- Gardening 



thickly on a rather light and dry piece of ground. The 
plants soon crowd, and by midsummer the tops begin to 
die for lack of food, moisture and room. The bulbs 
should not be more than one -half or three-fourths inch 
in diameter. They are cured and stored as ordinary 
onions are. The following spring, w^hen planted, they 




Fig. 91. Commercial onion sets. 



resume growth, and in a very short time give edible 
onions. Fig. 92 shows a multiplier onion. A cross-sec- 
tion (Fig. 93) shows that it has three ^^hearts" or "cores." 
As these cores grow, each gives rise to a separate bulb 
(Fig. 94) . If allowed to remain in the ground, each part 
develops two or more cores ; and so the multiplicatiouj 
continues. The top onion also starts into growth quickly 
in spring and soon makes an edible bulb. If the bulbl 



New Onion Culture 



319 



is planted out the following year, it sends up a stalk 
and produces a new crop of 'Hops." 

# Very recently, early onions have been 
grown to a considerable extent from 
transplanted seedlings. 
^ This method is known 
|| as the new onion cul- 
ture." The plants 
are started January, 

A multiplier onion. February or March in Cross-sectlon of a mul- 
About 14. natural size. Jiotbcds Or the f OrC- tiplier onion. 

ing-house, and are transplanted to the open when the 
season will permit. The large quick-growing southern 
types of onions, as Gibraltar and Prizetaker, may 
be grown to perfection in the North by this method, 
whereas the season may not be long enough for plants 
started in the open. 

In the growing of the main season crop, earliness is 
not particularly desired, and there is less necessity, there- 
fore, of making heavy applications of fertilizers which 
are quickly available. All onion lands need to be well 
fertilized, however, particularly with the materials rather 
rich in potash. Onions are relatively surface feeders, 
therefore the top of the soil should be very finely pre- 
pared, and the fertilizer should not be plowed under. 
Every attention should be given to preventing the soil 
from baking and to keeping the surface in uniformly 
good tilth. Soils that become dry and hard produce 
a poor crop of onions. The best soils are those that 
are naturally loose and moist, therefore lowland areas 
are nearly always selected for the growing of onions. 




320 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 

Reclaimed marshes, from which the roots and peat have 
been removed, are excellent. It is also of great advan- 
tage to have level land, as it facilitates the nse of the 
hand tools and the finger work which are so essential in 



or other fine-toothed tool. The land shonld have been in 
good cultivation for some years previous, if possible, in 
order that it may not contain seeds of weeds; for weeds 
are very difficult to eradicate in an onion bed. Raw and 
coarse stable manures are rarely used on onion lands be- 
cause they make the land rough and keep it too open, 
and they usually bring in seeds of weeds. Lowlands 
usually have sufficient humus, but if they have not, it 
may be supplied by top -dressings of old and fine ma- 
nure. Commercial fertilizers are usually to be advised 
in preference to fresh stable manures. It is customary 




the growing of a good 
crop of onions. 




It is customary to 
prepare onion land the 
previous fall. This 
not only insures earli- 
ness but it also allows 
the surface to become 
weathered and com- 
minuted so that it is 
in perfect condition for 
the seeds as soon as 
the season opens. All 




Onion Seed 



321 



to apply wood ashes as a surface dressing either in the 
fall or spring*. This is likely to improve the texture of 
the soil and it adds an available supply of potash and 
phosphoric acid. Lands that contain relatively little 
vegetable matter and which are rather dry in spring 
may receive an application of some soluble nitrogenous 
fertilizer. Onion seed germinates rather slow^ly and the 
plantlets are delicate and slender-rooted. The plants 
must take hold at once if they are to make a good 
growth. The onion-bed condition of tilth is considered 
by gardeners to be the measure of good treatment of 
land. There is no vegetable -garden crop raised on a 
large scale which demands such careful treatment of the 
surface soil as the onion. 

Onion seed should be sown as early in the spring as 
possible. This is because the onion delights in a 
cool season, and also because the plants should become 
established before the dry, hot weather of summer. In 
garden practice, the seed should be sown thick, for there 
is likely to be failure of the seeds to germinate; and if 
the first sowing does not give a good stand it is rarely 
advisable to make a second sowing because of the late- 
ness of the season. In field culture, thinning is ex- 
pensive, and one must take great care to secure good 
and viable seed. The seed is sown with various kinds 
of hand seed-drills, one of which is shown in Fig. 95. 

The character of the onion crop depends very largely 
on the seed stock. The onion is a plant that quickly 
runs down or deteriorates if the seed stock is not care- 
fully selected and grown Cheap onion seed is always 
to be avoided. Those who make a business of growing 

u 



322 The Frinciples of Yegetahle - Gardening 



onions prefer to buy seed from parties whom they know, 
even though it costs twice as much as the ordinary seed 
of the markets. Poor seed may mean mixed varieties, 
lack of uniformity in the crop, the production of 
scullions or onions that do not make large bulbs. 
It is very important that onion rows be perfectly 




Fig. 95. A four-row onion seeder. 



straight, as this facilitates tillage. Fig. 32, p. 118. 
Usually the rows are placed about 14 inches apart, and 
the tillage is done by means of hand wheel -hoes. 1 
the laud is rough, hard and uneven, these hoes cannot 
be worked to the best advantage. The land should be 
so finely pulverized that the lum^ps and clods will not 
roll on the young plants. Usually the onion patch will 



Onion Harvest 323 
m 

need to be weeded by hand once or twice early in the 
season; although in land which is very clean and free of 
weeds this expense may not be necessary. The better 
the preparation of the land the year before, the less 
will be the trouble and expense of growing the onion 
crop. 

On some soils onions tend to run too much to top, 
particularly on those which have been newly turned over 
from sod, or which are wet, or those which have re- 
ceived too great an application of rough stable manures. 
Dry soils and dry seasons tend to produce small top 
growth and a relatively large bulb, although the plants 
may mature so early in the season that the bulbs do not 
reach the actual size that they attain on moister land. 
If the tops are still rank and green late in August, or 
early in September, and show little tendency of ripening 
naturally, it is well to break them down in order to 
check the growth. A common way of doing this is to 
roll a barrel lengthwise the rows. The best onion 
crops, however, are those that ripen naturall3\ 
Late growth is sometimes due to the seed. If the seed 
has been grown for a number of seasons in a long- 
season and moist climate, as in England, the plants will 
tend to grow very late in the season. 

The onion is a somewhat difficult crop to handle and 
to store unless the fall season is warm and one has good 
facilities for handling the bulbs. The onions are 
usually allowed to dry or cure for a day or two before 
they are put into storage. If they cannot be handled 
in the field, they should be cured under cover, for the 
bulbs should be dry and free from dirt when they are 



324 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



sent to market or put into winter storage. Curing under 
cover is more expensive than curing in the field, but it 
usually gives brighter -colored bulbs and is to be advised 
when one caters to a special market. The tops must be 
removed. It is customary to pull the onions before the 
topping is done. Three or four rows of onions are thrown 
into one, making a small windrow. After they have 




Fig. 96. A New York onion field at harvest. 



cured for two or three days, the tops are removed with 
strong shears, or usually with a shoe knife. Fig. 96. 
The tops are cut about one-half inch above the bulb. 
If they are cut shorter than this the bulb is likely to 
rot or shrivel, and if they are cut much longer the bulb 
has an untidy appearance. The top shonld be cut oflf 
clean, leaving no ragged ends, and care should be taken 
not to tear the covering of the bulb itself. Some growers 
cut the tops from the bulbs before the crop is harvested. 



Onion Storing 



325 



This may be done if the tops have died naturally. It is 
usually rather more expeditious than the other way. 

If the crop is uneven, as will usually be the ease, it is 
advisable to grade the bulbs if the best prices are to be 
secured. All small, inferior, misshapen bulbs are re- 
moved, and also those that are of unusual color. 




Fig. 97. Sorting onions in the field. 



A good means of grading onion bulbs is to run them 
over a rack with slat bottom, shown in Fig. 97, the 
slats being at such distance apart as to allow the large 
bulbs to pass over, but to catch all the small ones and 
to drop them through the spaces. The large bulbs are 
worked over the end of the table into baskets or barrels. 

Mature onions ordinarily will not stand freezing and 
thawing. Therefore, if they are stored for the winter, 



326 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



they must be put in a frost -proof place. They must be 
kept dry. Winter storehouses in the North are often pro- 
vided with fire heat. Onions may be frozen with safety, 
however, provided they do not thaw out until spring and 
the thawing is then gradual. They may be stored in 
the loft on the north side of a building, where the sun 
does not strike the roof, and covered several feet thick 
with straw or loose hay. In the spring the straw is 
gradually removed and they are allowed to thaw slowly. 
When the winter temperature is very uniform, this 
method of keeping onions may be safe; but in regions 
in which there are great fluctuations in winter tempera- 
ture it is not to be recommended. In fact, it is always 
hazardous. 

Most onion -growers prefer to sell the crop in the 
fall. Usually it is put in temporary storage in open 
sheds, much as corn is stored in the crib. One of these 
sheds is shown in Fig. 98. There are wide spaces in 
the outside boarding of the shed, and the floor is raised 
a few inches above the ground and cracks are left in it. 
The eaves should project enough to carry all water clear 
of the sides. If the onions are dry and clean when 
put into storage and the tops have been carefully re- 
moved, the onions may be stored several feet deep in; 
narrow bins or cribs of this kind. 

Sow onion seed as early in the spring as the ground can be 
made ready. In mild climates, seed is sometimes sown in the 
fall. Sets, tops, and multipliers may be planted at intervals until 
steady warm spring weather comes. 

One ounce of seed is sown in about 150 feet of drill, and 3% to 
5 pounds to the acre. A good crop of onions is 300-400 bushels to 
the acre, but 600-800 are secured under the very best conditions. 



Onions 



327 



The two old-time standard varieties are Yellow Danvers and 
Red Wethersfield. At the present time, however, a true, globe- 
shaped onion is the most popular in the large markets. The 
White, Red, and Yellow Globe are now the great commercial varie- 
ties. Southport Globe is another name for these varieties. The 
handsome color secured on the bulbs at Southport, Conn., is secured 
by curing under cover away from the sun. Other popular onions 
for the North are Michigan Globe, Queen, Portugal, Pearl, Barletta, 




Fig. 98. An onion shed. The onions are stored in bins 
along the sides, like corn. 



Bermuda; various small Italian sorts are popular for home use. 
For large late varieties, some of the giant Italian sorts are desirable, 
and the flavor is mild. 

Growing onions from seedlings started in the seed bed and 
transplanted to the field has within the last few years gained 
considerable popularity at the East under the name of ^the new 
onion culture.' The procedure by transplanting is probably new 
as claimed in this country east of the Rocky Mountains; but, as 
is shown by Wickson in his book on ^California Vegetables,' it is 
more than a quarter of a century old in California, and was brought 
to this state by growers from the south of Europe, where it is 
probably a time -honored practice. Transplanting of autumn -grown 
seedlings is much more popular in California than growing from 
'sets,' and is largely relied upon for the early crop. The practice 
could often be more widely followed with profit, as this spring's 
experience shows. Very profitable rates could have been gained 
for a month or more back for early maturing onions, grown on 



328 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



light soils in parts of the state with a warm winter and moderate 
rains." — Pacific Rural Press, May 5, 1900. See Huntley, Bull. 22, 
Idaho Exp. Sta., for recent experiments on the transplanting of 
onions. 

In 1889 (Annals Hort.) 78 varieties of "seed" onions were 
offered by American dealers, and also about twenty kinds of mul- 
tipliers, potato onions and sets. For purposes of careful scientific 
study, the varieties may be classified into geographical races, but 
for purposes of description they may be assembled into groups 
characterized by such arbitrary features as form and color of bulb. 
Goff (6th Kept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., for the year 1887, pp. 190- 
214) classifies first by shape of bulb and then by color. He 
makes four primary groups: bulb oblate, spherical, top-shape, 
oval or pear- shape. Each of these groups is divided into three 
sections: color white, yellower brownish, red or reddish. Another 
classification (Bailey, Bull. 31, Mich. Agric. College, 1887) makes 
three primary sections on methods of propagation : propagated by 
division (multipliers), by bulblets or "tops," by seeds (or sets). 
The last section (seed onionsj is divided into bulbs silvery white 
and bulbs colored, and these groups are divided on shape of bulb. 

The maggot is a serious onion pest. It burrows in the root. 
There is no practical means of combating it except to use infested 
lands for other crops. The rust and smut diseases may be held in 
check to some extent by Bordeaux mixture spray. Rotation is the 
best remedy for smut. Following are references to recent experi- 
ment station literature on onion troubles : 

Onion Thrip, N. Y. Bull. 83, p. 680, with illus. ; Iowa Bull. 27, 
p. 139: Fla. Bull. 46: Kerosene emulsion, 1 to 10. 

Downy mildew, Wis. Eept. 1, pp. 38 44, desc. and illus.; 
Conn. Kept. 13, pp. 155, 156; Vt. Rept. 10, pp. 61, 62. 

Remove all blighted vegetable matter. Weak Bordeaux. 

Smut, Conn. Rept. 13, pp. 119-148, desc. and illus.; Conn. 
Rept. 19, pp. 176-182: Transplant seedlmgs or use sets. 

The onion has been cultivated from the earliest times. For 
history, see Sturtevant, Amer. Naturalist, Jan., 1890, pp. 36-40. 

Special treatises on onion-growing in North America are: 
Greiner^s "Onions for Profit," and "The New Onion Culture;" 
Greiner and Arlie^s "How to Grow Onions;" Orange Judd Com- 
pany's "Onion Book." 



CHAPTER XII 



COLE CROPS 

Cabbage, Cauliflower and broccoli, 

Kale, borecole and collards, Kohlrabi. 
Brussels sprouts, 

All cole crops are liarcly and demand a cool season and 
soil, and ahiindance of moisture at the root. Except the 
kales and Jiohlrahi, all are seed-bed crops, and even Ixales 
are often started in ieds. Each j^lant requires considerable 
space in order to develop ivell. Cole crops are grotvn for 
the vegetative aerial parts rather than for fruits or roots. 

CABBAGE 

Cool soil ivhich is deep and has power to hold much 
moisture, continuoits groivth from start to finish, frequent 
and thorough surface tillage, extra care in the selection of 
seed,avoidi7ig the root mac/got, club root, and rot by means 
of rotation, destroying the cabbage- worm as soon as it 
appears, — these are essentials in cabbage growing. Cab- 
bage is grown for the dense rosette or head of leaves. 

Young cabbage plants will stand frost if properly 
grown. For the early crop, the plants are raised under 
glass. For the main-season or late crop they may be 
started in seed-beds in the open. Seeds for late cabbages 
are sometimes planted directly in the field where the 

(329) 



330 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 

crop is to stand, but this is unwise, for the young 
plants cannot receive proper care and the bugs get them. 
See that the young plants are stocky. It is customary 
to set the plants in the ground up to the first true leaves, 
and gardeners think that such setting gives better heads, 
but this belief was not verified in three years^ tests at 
Cornell (summary in Bull. 37). It is important that the 
young plants make continuous growth, for if stunted 
they do not give as good crops. The seeds germinate 
quickly. Fig. 99. 

Make the land rich and keep the cultivator mov- 
ing. Use every means to save the soil moisture. If 
the nearly mature heads cease growing and are then 
started into growth again by means of tillage or rains, 
they are likely to crack. 

In storing cabbages, it is impc:*;;! ive that they are not 
infested with the black-rot fungus. Keep the water from 
the middle of the head, and then keep the heads as cool 
as possible, without actually freezing hard, and always 
prevent drying out. 

The treatment of aU cole crops may be compared to that of 
cabbage. The story of growing a crop of cabbages is weU told 
in the following sketch by the late J. M. Smith, Green Bay, 
Wisconsin, who was one of the most expert market- gardeners of his 
region. The article was written for the author some time ago, and 
has never been published. "The longer I live," wrote Mr. Smith at 
the time, then in the midst of a serious drought, "the more firmly 
am I convinced that plenty of manure and then the most com- 
plete system of cultivation make an almost complete protection 
against droughts of an ordinary character." Mr. Smith's article 
now follows : 

Importance of the Crop. — There is probably no article in the 
entire vegetable list of which the consumption has increased so 



Cabbage Culture 



33] 



rapidly within the last ten years ?-s that of the cabbage. A few 
years ago the consumption of sauer-kraut was confined princi- 
pally to Germans and other foreign -born citizens. Its use has 
not only increased among them, but our native Americans are 
now using it largely. Tens of thousands of barrels are manufac- 
tured yearly, where a few hundred barrels would have supplied 
the demand twenty years ago. A very large amount of food can 
be grown per acre with cabbage, and when grown it is valuable 
either for man or beast. For instance, if an acre were set with 




Fig. 99. MlJabbage seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



some of the compact, close-growing varieties requiring 10,000 
plants, the land being well enriched and then thoroughly culti- 
vated, it w^ould not be unreasonable to expect the plants to aver- 
age five pounds each, including the outside leaves. Here are 
twenty-five tons of food per acre if used for cattle, and about 
half or two-thirds of that amount if used for man. If some of 
the large-leaved varieties, like the Premium Flat Dutch, are grown, 
a much greater amount of food for stock may be raised per acre. 
Even when it is grown for market, the large quantities of waste 
leaves are well worth saving for stock food. 

Soil. — I prefer a sandy loam, rather heavy than light, and 
rather damp than dry, but it must be thoroughly drained. Cabbage 



332 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



is a gross feeder, and hence plenty of manure is a necessity. Forty 
good two -horse loads per acre is not too much if one expects 
large crops, and there is no danger of making the land too rich. 
I prefer to put about half of the manure on the land and plow 
under, then spread on as much more and harrow in thoroughly, 
unless the manure is coarse, in which case I would plow all under. 

Raising the Plants and Setting Them. — We commence setting 
about as soon as w^e get the ground in good condition in the 
spring. Sometimes we have a hard frost after our first plants 
are set, which will of course put them back a few days, but 
will not seriously damage the crop if the plants have been 
properly hardened in the hotbeds. This hardening is done 
by removing the sash every day for a week or ten days 
before taking out the plants, at least part of the day, and if the 
nights are not too cool leaving them off during the night, thus 
accustoming the plants to the open air. We continue setting 
plants from the early spring until about the 15th of July. For 
the last date we need the quick -growing varieties, to mature 
before the cold weather comes. If the Premium Flat Dutch is 
used, it should be set not later than July 1. In fact, June 
26 would be preferable in this latitude. This variety should be 
set at least thirty inches apart each way. 

It may be asked, Why not set the entire crop early in the sea- 
son, or as soon as the weather becomes warm and settled? One 
reason is that if plants are set too early the heads become ripe 
and burst, and are very soon worthless. The other reason is 
that we wish to double -crop our ground as far as possible. For 
instance, our strawberries are generally gone by the 10th of 
July, and we can get a good crop of cabbage on the ground by 
setting a quick-growing sort, and then taking good care of it. 
For all our cabbage except what we call first- and second- earlies, 
we sow the seed in the open ground in the garden, sowing some 
about as soon as the ground is fit to work, and then continuing to 
sow at intervals of a week or ten days until from the 1st to the 
5th of June, when we sow the seed for our last setting in July. 

Very few growers now attempt to grow" their own seed. Seed- 
growing has become a business by itself, and the gardener can 
purchase good seed if he> deals directly with relial)le seedsmen. To 
depend upon tlie papers that are to be found in the windows of the 



Cabbage Culture 



333 



grocers would be the height of folly. The safest way, if possible, 
is to deal direct with the growers, and then, if there is failure, we 
know where the blame belongs. 

For early cabbage, two feet apart each way is sufficient, For 
marking off the ground, we use a marker similar in form to a 
common hand hay rake, the head being of some light kind of dry 
timber, usually a 2 x4 
pine scantling 12 feet -'^ 
long, with holes bored 
at different distances 
apart in such a man- 
ner that the teeth will 
slope a little back in- 
stead of forward, as 
with the hay rake. 
With this a man can 
mark two acres in a 
day, and do it well. 
For early cabbages, we 
start our seeds in a 





Fig. 100. Good head of summer cabbage. 



hotbed about five or six weeks before they will be needed for set- 
ting in the open ground. Some persons advocate sowing them 
very early, and then transplanting them into a mild hotbed or 
coldframe, four or five inches apart each way, so as to have them 
larger and more stocky than is possible in the original hotbed, 
before putting them in the open ground. I have tried it repeat- 
edly and had plants large aud beautiful in appearance, but when 
the crop was grown I have never once had it as good as when the 
plants were taken direct fix)m the hotbed to the open ground. I 
can give no reason for this and will not attempt any. The plants 
from the coldframe may make heads a few days earlier, but the 
crop has in every case been an indifferent one, and we abandoned 
the plan years ago as no longer worthy of trial. 

When the ground is prepared and marked, let a man go ahead 
with a potato hook and loosen the ground where the plants are to 
be set, if it is hard. Then let a boy follow with a basket of plants 
and drop one at each crossing of the mc^rks. The boy must be fol- 
lowed by the setters, but must not be allowed to get ahead of 
them, as a few minutes of dry and hot sunshine will seriously 



334 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



damage the plants. The setters go upon their knees between the 
rows, setting two rows as they go. They pick up the plant with 
the left hand, and at the same time with the right open the ground 
and set the plant, press the earth back, and then with the closed 
hands press the earth firmly about the newly set plant. This is all 
done very quickly. Some of my men will set 6,000 or 8,000 plants 
per day, and do it well. After setting, unless the ground is quite 
damp and the weather wet, it is best to put at least half a pint of 
water upon each plant. I know of no plant that will bear trans- 
planting, even in very dry, hot weather, better than the cabbage, 
provided it is well watered. In the summer we often put one quart 
of water on the plant instead of half a pint, and even then it is 
sometimes necessary to repeat the operation within three or four 
days. You may think all this pains in setting and watering quite 
too much trouble, but the doing of the work well or ill, and doing 
it at the right time, make the difference between' a paying crop 
and a partial, or perhaps total, failure. 

Tilling. — The plants will need cultivating very often if they 
are to grow rapidly. It is well to go through them the first time 
with a hand cultivator, as the plants are so small that a horse 
cultivator will cover some and damage others. But when the 
plants are well started, we like the horse and the Planet Jr. cul- 
tivator. As the plants are but two feet apart, and the cultivator 
needs careful handling, we let a boy lead the horse. Nearly all 
the work is done with the horse and cultivator, except a very 
little near the plants. Although they are very strong and rapid 
growers, but few plants are more sensitive to neglect than the 
cabbage, or more favorably affected by extra good care. We 
had a good illustration of this last summer. The weather was 
very dry, and we were doing our best to protect them against 
the drought by extra cultivation. They had become so large that 
we were, as we well knew, going through them for the last time. 
The ground was apparently as dry as hot ashes and almost as 
mellow to walk upon. Few persons would have thought that any 
further cultivation would have been of any use, so apparently 
perfect was the condition, and one would hardly have been able 
to find weeds enough to fill his pockets from the three or four 
acres. Still I thought going through them again might possibly 
aid them in their struggle with the drought. But a shower came 



Cabbage Culture 



335 



in the afternoon and drove the cultivator out, leaving about 
three -fourths of an acre undone. In the morning on going to 
the garden, I found my teamster at work elsewhere, and on ask- 
ing him why he had not finished cultivating the cabbage, he 
said he had tried to do it, but found they had grown so much 
in t-he night that he thought his work there would do more 
harm than good, and after myself examining them I fully agreed 
with him, and they received no further cultivation. Now for 
the result : when we came to harvest the crop, we found that the 
portion left uncultivated was not nearly as good as the balance 
of the piece, although the variety was the same, the land, the 
manure, and cultivation were the same except the last cultivation. 
My son and myself estimated that the cash value of that three- 
fourths of an acre was at least fifty dollars less for lack of that 
last few hours' work. One was simply a good crop, while the 
other was a very large one. 

Varieties.— Ijike other garden vegetables, the list of new vari- 
ties enlarges rapidly. It is well to test some of the more prom- 
ising novelties, but do it in a small way at first, and if on trial 
they prove better than those you now have, adopt them. Differ- 
ent varieties thrive best in different sections of country. The 
Bergen Drumhead is one of the finest varieties in the region of 
New York city, but has never done equally well with me, while 
the Newark Flat Dutch, its near neighbor, is one of the best and 
most profitable varieties I have ever cultivated. In fact, if I 
could have but one variety, and was allowed to choose, I believe 
I should take this in preference to any other that I have ever 
tried. The Chicago Market is very good and is valuable in the 
gardens near that city, but with me not equal to others. Try 
the standard varieties first, experiment carefully, and you will 
soon find what you can safely rely on for a crop, if you do your 
work thoroughly and well. 

For first early, the Charleston Wakefield stands at the head of 
the list. If it is planted out as early as the season will allow with 
us, and well cared for, we usually expect to begin to market the 
crop in June. The Newark Flat Dutch and Henderson Early Sum- 
mer are among the best for second-early, being only about two 
weeks later than the Wakefield, and as they are larger are chosen 
in preference to the other. Hence we only set enough of the 



336 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



Wakefield to last until the others are grown. Early Spring is only 
a few days behind the Wakefield. The great drawback with us in 
growing early cabbage is what we call the cabbage maggot. It is 
the product of a fly very similar to a small house fly. Paper pads 
(p. 345) are good preventives of attack. As a main -season variety 
the Premium Flat Dutch has been invaluable. It grows an immense 
mass of leaves, and if grown for feed would have extra value on that 
account. But it is also an excellent variety for the table. The 
heads are nearly round, very solid, of excellent quality, and also 
very good keepers. Then in case of a few cold and freezing days 
or nights before cabbages are gathered, this will not be damaged 
as much as the quick- growing varieties. This variety is now dis- 
placed by Autumn King, Succession, and others. 

Marketing and Storing. — Our cabbage is mostly shipped away 
from our city, the best market being outside. During the summer 
and until late in the fall it is cut and packed in crates that will 
hold from 50 to 100 each. Being sold by the head, we have found 
that it gives better satisfaction to our customers to put in the 
crates neither the very largest nor the smallest heads, but to have 
them of good, fair size and to run as evenly as possible, leaving 
the very large ones and the small ones to be worked into kraut. I 
rarely throw them on the market, but supply retail grocers and 
others who sell direct to the consumers. It is always our object 
to keep just as near the consumer as possible. Late in the fall we 
often sell in bulk to those who are laying in a stock for winter. 
We always prefer to sell our entire crop in the fall in preference 
to keeping it through the winter. It is bulky to handle, requires 
a good deal of room and more or less care, and there is sure to be 
more or less loss and waste. We have sometimes kept a few hun- 
dred in the following manner : I 

Dig a trench about four feet wide and at least one foot deep. 
Pull up the cabbage without shaking the dirt from the roots and 
retaining all the leaves. Place the heads in the trench with the 
roots up, close together, and wrap the leaves closely around them. 
Throw a few inches of straw over them and then cover with earth,— 
not more than three or four inches at first. Two dangers must be 
guarded against: If you get them too warm they will surely 
rot; or if you let them freeze too hard they will just as surely be 
spoiled when the frost comes out in the spring. After the weather 




Y 



338 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



becomes cold, freezing somewhat, put on more earth. I think a 
foot will do no harm. I have had good success with cabbage kept 
in this manner, but have again lost the entire lot by too hard freez- 
ing. Hence, we prefer, if possible, to sell the entire crop in the 
fall, even if we are obliged to sell at a low rate. Cabbage is now 
stored on shelves in a cool dry building. 

Costs and Profits. — Following were figures for the growing of 
a market-garden crop of cabbages 10 years ago. We need first- 
class land, and will assume it to be worth $200 per acre: 



Interest and taxes per year $15 00 

Forty loads of manure at $1 per load . 40 00 

Plowing and fitting the ground .... 3 00 

10,000 plants at $4 per thousand . . . 40 00 

Setting and watering 5 00 

After- cultivation 10 00 

Harvesting and marketing 50 00 



Total . . . . . . . . . $163 00 

If we get 8,000 heads and sell them at $3.50 

per hundred $280 00 

It will give a net profit of $117 00 



I have placed the cost of growing at a fair price (I believe 
more than it will cost me), and a crop of 8,000 from a setting 
of 10,000 is only moderate. At present these figures cannot be 
reached. Sometimes the crop is sold at a loss. 




One ounce of cabbage seed contains over 8,000 seeds, but 
not more than one-third or one-half of these seeds may be ex- 
pected to make good plants. Early varieties are set 18x24 
inches, or 24x24 inches (about 10,000 plants to the acre); late 
varieties 2x3 feet (about 7,000 plants). Four to six ounces of 
seed is usually required for an acre. 

For Chinese Cabbage or Pe-Tsai, see the next chapter. 



Kale 



339 



KALE OR BORECOLE 

As compared with cabbage, kale requires less exacting 
care, is hardier, and the seed is usually sown where the 
plants are to ^nature. Kale is grown for its large 
leaves. Kale may be likened to a cabbage plant that 
produces no heads. In fact, it is a form of the cabbage 
species that is very near the aboriginal type. The 
plants are extremely hardy and are therefore grown 
mostly for fall or spring nse. Greens from kale are 
prized in the market only very late or early in the 
season when many other kinds cannot be had in quantity.. 
In the North, kale is ordinarily sown in the spring, the 
seeds being placed where the plants are to stand. The 
rows may be far enough apart to allow of horse cultiva- 
tion, and the plants may eventually stand, after the 
thinning process, from ten to twenty inches apart, 
allowing each plant an opportunity to develop to its 
best. The plants are not used until late fall or even 
winter. Often they are allowed to stand in the field all 
winter and are not injured by freezing, not even in the 
northern states. The older leaves and leaf -stalks are 
usually improved by being frozen. The tenderest leaves 
are picked from the plants at intervals, or the whole 
plant may be harvested at once. For early spring use 
the seed ordinarily is sown in late summer or early fall 
in the South and middle South, and the plants stand out 
of doors during the whole winter and are ready for use 
ver3' early in the spring. In the northernmost states, 
however, these young plants are likely to perish unless 
protected under frames; therefore fall -sown kale is rela- 



340 The Principles of Yegetahle- Gardening 

tively little known in the colder parts of the country. It 
is grown on a very extensive scale about Norfolk, Vir- 
ginia, and is shipped to the northern markets from New 
Tear's until the opening of spring. 

In the southern states a form of kale known as col- 
lards is much grown, particularly in those regions w^hich 
are so warm that good cabbages cannot be raised. The 
plants are grown as cabbage plants are, the seed being 
sown very earl}^ in the spring, usually in a seed-bed 
under protection, in order that the plants may get a 
good growth before hot weather sets in. The leaves are 
ready for eating in the fall. Sometimes young cabbage 
plants are raised for greens and are known as collards. 

BRUSSELS SPROUTS 

The citlUire demanded by Brussels sprouts is essen- 
tially that required by hale, except that the plants are al- 
ways grown as a fall crop and they are usually started 
in seed-beds. The plant is grown for the small heads 
along the main stalk, 

Brussels sprouts is closelj^ allied to kale, but along 
the straight, strong stem little buds or miniature cab- 
bages are borne, and these are the edible parts. A good 
" sprout, as one of the buds is called, averages from 
one to two inches in diameter. When the sprouts are 
small and tender, they constitute one of the best and 
most delicately flavored vegetables of the cabbage tribe. 

The treatment for Brussels sprouts is essentially that 
for cabbage. In the North the seeds ordinarily are 
sown rather late in order that the plants ma}- not mature 



Brussels Sprouts — Cauliflower 341 

too early, for the sprouts are most prized in late fall 
and winter. A large part of the growth of the plant is 
made in the cool weather of fall. If seeds are sown in 
June, the plants may be set in the field after the manner 
of cabbages in late July or August. In the middle 
states the plants may be left out of doors during the 
winter as the light freezing does not injure the sprouts. 
In the northernmost states, however, plants are usually 
dug late in the fall and planted out in pits, something 
after the method described for celery and leeks, on page 
232. A good crop of Brussels sprouts is dependent very 
largely on the strain of seed, as the plants tend to run 
down when careful selection in seed -raising is not prac- 
ticed. A strong plant of the ordinary varieties of Brus- 
sels sprouts makes a stalk from two to three feet high, 
producing sprouts from near the base to the large 
canopy of leaves at the top. There are dwarf varieties, 
however, which grow from sixteen to eighteen inches 
high and which are in favor in short-season climates. 

CAULIFLOWER 

From cabbage, the culture of cauliflower differs 
chiefly as follows : The plant is more particular as to 
climate, requiring a relatively cool, moist season; it 
demands a constant supply of soil -moisture; care must 
be exercised that the heads do not sunburn; it is vitally 
important that the very best strain of seed is used. The 
plant is grown for its white tender heads formed of the 
shortened and thickened flower-parts. 

Cauliflower is a difficult plant to grow to perfection 



342 The Princivles of Vegetable -Oardewhig 



in the hotter and dryer parts of the country. Its re- 
quirements are similar to those of the cabbage except 
that it is injured by hot suns and dry weather, and it 
therefore needs a cool and moist atmosphere. Along 
the seaboard of the northeastern states, near the Great 
Lakes, and in the Puget Sound region, cauliflower is 
grown with success, as it is, also, in special locations in 
many parts of the country. Wherever irrigation can be 
practiced, it may also be grown successfully. In the 
American climate the effort is usually made to secure 
the crop early or late and thereby to avoid growing it in 
the heat of midsummer. When thus grown, its range of 
adaptability is 'much extended. Under this system, the 
early crop is usually off in June or July. This crop is 
secured by growing the early varieties, like the Snow- 
ball and Paris, and b}^ starting the plants under glass. 
The late crop is matured late in the fall from seeds 
that are sown in summer in seed-beds. For this crop 
some of the later and larger -growing varieties may be 
used. There is a family of long-season and late-matur- 
ing cauliflowers, relatively little grown in this country, 
which is known under the general name of broccoli. 

In order that the heads of cauliflower may be white 
and tender, care should be taken that they are not sun- 
burned. If the heads mature in midsummer, it is well 
to tie the leaves together over the head or to break a 
few of the leaves over it in order to shade it. 

Every effort should be made to conserve the moisture 
by deep preparation of the land in the first place and 
by frequent surface tillage thereafter. Low but well- 
drained bottom-lands are usually chosen in order that 



Kohlrabi 



343 



the plants may have a constant supply of moisture. On 
Long Island, however, where the cauliflower is very 
largely grown, this precaution is unnecessary, since the 
atmosphere is moist from proximity to the ocean and 
the water-table is not deep. 

Probabl}^ there is no other vegetable which so quickly 
runs down from poor seed as the cauliflower. It is, 
therefore, exceedingly important that the very best strain 
of seed be secured if the best results are to be attained. 
The best cauliflower seed is expensive, running as high 
as three to five dollars per ounce ; but the cheap seed 
gives a smaller percentage of heading plants and the heads 
are usually irregular and broken. The cauliflower has a 
tendency to button" or to throw up irregular growths 
from the head. This is due to poor seed, dry soil and 
too great heat, and also to allowing the plants to become 
checked and then starting them into new growth by re- 
newed tillage. Keep the plants in a uniform condition 
of thrift. The cauliflower seed of the market is grown 
in the Old World, the best of it coming from Denmark; 
but just now the Puget Sound country is developing as a 
region for the growing of cauliflower seed. 

KOHLRABI 

The treatment required hy kohlrabi is that demanded 
by flat turnips. The plant is grown for the tuberous stem. 

Kohlrabi produces a turnip-like tuber just above the 
ground. It is grown mostly as a stock food and is 
relatively little known in this country outside of Canada. 
However, the plant is a very excellent garden vegetable 



344 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 



if used before the tubers become large and stringy. 
The tubers should be used when they are from two to 
three inches in diameter; it is essential that they should 
have grown quickly and continuously, otherwise they are 
tough and bitter. Successive sowings 
may be made and the plants should be 
thinned to six to ten inches apart in the 
row. White Vienna is the leading garden 
variety. Fig. 102. 

Seed required per acre and distances apart for 

Brussels sprouts and cauliflower are essentially as 

for cabbage ; kale is usually allowed to stand 

^. _ , . , . somewhat closer in the rows. For kohlrabi, esti- 

Fig,102. Kohlrabi. . x. ^ • 

mate as tor turnips. 

In 1889 (Annals Hort.) American seedsmen offered 110 varie- 
ties of cabbage, 29 of kale, 7 of Brussels sprouts, 53 of cauli- 
flower, 7 of kohlrabi. Goff classifies cabbages as follows (5th An- 
nual Rept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta. for 1886, p. 185): 
A. Foliage smooth. 

B. Head flattened. 
BB. Head round. 

c. Foliage green. 
CO. Foliage red or purple. 
BBB. Head egg-shaped. 
BBBB. Head elliptical. 
BBBBB. Head conical. 

c. Foliage green. 
CO. Foliage red. 
AA. Foliage blistered (Savoys). 
B. Head round. 
BB. Head elliptical. 
BBB. Head conical. 

The cole plants (known to the French under the generic name 
of cliou) ai'e probably derivatives of one European sea-coast species, 
Brassica oleracea. It belongs to the Cruciferce or mustard family. 
The plant is perennial and now grows on the cliffs of southern Eng- 




Notes on Cole Plants 



345 



land and other parts of Europe. The cultivated offspring are mostly 
biennial. The wild cabbage is very like a tall kale. See pictures 
in Cyclopedia Amer. Hort. under Cabbage. The types may be ar- 
ranged as follows: 

Brassica oleracea, wild o? original form. 
Var. acepliala. Kale. 
Var. gemynifera. Brussels sprouts. 
Var. capitata. Cabbage. 
Var. botrytis. Cauliflower. 
Var. caulo-rapa. Kohlrabi. 

In some of its forms cabbage has been cultivated from the 
earliest times. For history, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., June, 
3887, pp. 520 -o23 for cabbage; September, 1888, pp. 805-808 for 
kale; May, 1887, pp. 440-442 for Brussels sprouts; August, 1887, 
pp. 701-703 for cauliflower. 

On insects and diseases the following publications maybe con- 
sulted : 

Root maggot, Cornell Bull. 78. Very complete. lUustr. 
The really efficient means of circumventing or destroying 
the cabbage maggot, aside from rotation, are very few. 
See Slingerland, Cornell Bull. 78, who recommends tarred 
paper cards placed snugly about the plants; rubbing eggs 
from base of the young plant; injecting crude carbolic 
acid emulsion, or bisulfide of carbon into the ground about 
the plants. The injections are best made with a specially 
constructed syringe. 

Cutworms, Cornell Bull. 104. 

Worm, or Butterfly, N. Y. Bull. 83, p. 657; ill. N. Y. Bull. 

144. Capture. Persistent use of Paris green on first crop. 

Resin-lime mixture: Pulv. resin, 5 lbs. ; concentrated lye, 1 

lb. ; fish oil or any cheap animal oil, except tallow, 1 pt. ; 

water, 5 gals. 
Looper. Same as for worm. 

Aphis, N. Y. Bull. 83, p. 673. Fla. Bull. 34, p. 270. Bisulfide 
of carbon; kerosene emulsion diluted with ten parts water; 
on lower and upper sides of leaves if possible when small. 
Tobacco ; pyrethrum ; Persian insect powder. 



346 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



Harlequin Cabbage Bug, N. Y. Bull. 83, p. 683. N. J. Bull. 121. 

Fla. Bull. 34, p. 268. N. Y. : Hand-picking. Should 

not get foothold. N. J. : Clean culture and cleanliness 

to deprive of winter shelter. 
Club root, N. J. Bull. 98. N. Y. Rept., 1895, p. 525. N. J. 

Bull. 108, p. 17. N. J. : Air-slaked stone lime, 75 bus: to 

acre. Rotation: see p. 200 of this book. 

Special hooJc literature: Gregory, " Cabbages Pedersen, et 
al., "How to Grow Cabbages and Cauliflower most Profitably;" Lup- 
ton, "Cabbage and Cauliflower for profit;" Crozier, "The Cauli- 
flower'^ ("How to Cook Cauliflower" is a reprint of one chapter in 
this book); Brill, "Cauliflowers and How to Grow Them." 



CHAPTER XIII 



POT-HERB CROPS 



Spinach, 

Chard or leaf- beet, 

Orach, 

Mustard, 



Pe-tsai, 

Dandelion, 

Purslane. 



Pot 'herb crops, or greens, are groivn for their 
leaves: therefore they must mahe quick growth in order 
to be crisp and tender; the ground must have good sur- 
face tilth and much available plant-food; the application 
of soluble nitrogenous substances is usually important, 
particularly when the groivth is nearing completion. Most 
pot 'herb crops demand a cool season; and nearly all of 
them are partial -season crops, and are therefore treated 
as succession- or companion -crops. 



Spinach is essentially a spring and fall crop. It de- 
lights in cool, moist weather. It is grown mostly in 
drills. It is usually a succession -crop. 

Spinach or spinage is the standard plant for spring 
and fall greens. For home use it ma}^ be had during 
the summer by making suceessional sowings in rather 
cool and moist ground; but as a commercial crop, it is 
not grown in warm weather. Formerly spinach was 



SPINACH 



(347) 



848 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



brought to early maturity in the North under glass on a 
rather large scale, but of late years it is grown in such 
quantities about Norfolk and other parts of the South 
that it is seldom grown in frames in the North except 
for home use. 

The early spring spinach is grown from seeds that 
are sown in the field in September. The land should be 
rich; also well drained, that the plants may not "heave'' 
by frost. It is customary to plow the land into low 
ridges or beds 6-9 feet wide, in order to secure perfect 
surface drainage. Lengthwise these beds the spinach is 
sown in rows 12-18 inches apart, the distance depending 
on the means that are employed for tillage. The plants 
should become thoroughly established before winter, 
having made a spread of leaves of three or four inches 
at least. The crop is usually left uncovered in the 
North, even as far north as New York state; although 
if material is at hand, it may be covered lightly with 
straw or litter to prevent heaving and thawing. On the 
first opening of spring the spinach resumes growth. In 
fact, in mild seasons it may grow throughout most of 
the winter. It should be ready for use in April and 
May, and be off the ground early in June, even in the 
northern states, leaving the land for other crops. In the 
South it is marketed from late November to March and 
early April. Since spinach is prized for its crisp, ten- 
der leaves, it is a crop that profits by an application 
of soluble nitrogenous fertilizers. It is customary, in 
some parts of the country, to sprinkle the ground early 
in the spring with a weak solution of nitrate of soda or 
sulfate of ammonia, using from 50-75 pounds of the 



Spinach 



349 



fertilizer per acre at each of two or three successive 
applications. These applications may be made from ten 
days to two weeks apart. The applications are often 
applied by means of a street sprinkler or similar ar- 
rangement. Sometimes the beds are top-dressed with 
manure in the fall, and the leachings from the manure 
will then start the plants quickly in the spring. Hen- 
manure is sometimes used. 

There is always more or less loss of fall -grown 
plants in the northern states. For home use, and some- 




Fig. 103. Spinach seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



times for market, plants are started in the spring in a 
warm position, the seed usually being sown where the 
plants are to remain. It is more easy to secure a good 
stand by this spring sowing, but the plants do not ma- 
ture so early. Spinach is sometimes started under glass 
and transplanted to the open; audit is sometimes grown 
to edible maturity under frames. Sometimes beds of 
fall -grown spinach are covered with sash in February 
or March in order to hasten the plants. 

The New Zealand spinach, which is a distinct spe- 
cies from the above, is sometimes used for summer 



350 The Principles of YegetaMe- Gardening 



greens, although it has never gained much popularity, 
one reason being that greens are not in great demand in 
hot weather. 

Drills for spinach are usually 12-18 in. apart. In the drills 
the plants may stand 4-6 in. apart. For an acre, 10-12 lbs. of 
seed is used; 1 oz. sows about 150 ft. of drill. 

Spinach, Spinacia oleracea, is one of the Chenopodiacece^ or pig- 
weed family, allied to beet. It is probably native to southwestern 
Asia, and appears to have come into cultivation within the Chris- 
tian era. The plant is annual, sending up its flower-stalk in sum- 
mer if sown in early spring. There are two races, the prickly- 
seeded and round -seeded (the "seeds" are really fruits^, and these 
are regarded as distinct species by some writers. The prickly- 
seeded is hardiest and is commonly used for fall sowing. Other 
standard kinds are Viroflay, Bloomsdale, Round-Leaved. Nineteen 
varieties were in the American trade in 1889. Goff (6th Rep. N. Y. 
State Exp. Sta., pp. 225-230) reduces the varieties to 10, divid- 
ing them into "seeds not prickly" (9 vars.) and "seeds prickly." 
For history, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., August, 1890, pp. 724- 
726. 

For spinach troubles, see : 

Leaf miner, N. Y. Bull. 99; R. I. Bull. 41. N. Y. : Clean 
cultivation to destroy all lamb's quarters; late fall or early 
spring plowing of fields. 

Various fungous diseases, desc. and ill. in N. Y. Bull.'No. 70. 
Mildew, Anthracnose, Leaf Blight, White Smut. Burn 
all affected parts. Rotation. Treat soil with mixture of 
flowers of sulfur and air- slaked lime. 

New Zealand Spinach is not a spinach, but a member of the 
Fig Marigold family {Mesemhryantliemacece). It is Tetragonia ex- 
pansa of the botanists. It is annual. It endures hot weather and 
therefore may be substituted for spinach in summer. Sow at in- 
tervals, as for spinach. "This plant was first found by Sir Joseph 
Banks, in 1770, at Queen Charlotte's Sound, New Zealand, and its 
merits discovered to the sailors of Captain Cook's expedition round 
the world. It reached Kew Gardens in 1772." — Sturtevant, Amer. 
Xat., Jam., 1890, p. 32. . 



Chard, Orach, Mustard 



351 



OTHER GREENS 

Many kinds of plants aside from spinach are used 
as greens or pot-herbs. Some of the common weeds 
are much prized for this purpose in the rural districts, 
particularly the common white pigweed or lamb's 
quarter, pusley or purslane, dandelion and dock. The 
following are garden plants. 

Ohard, or leaf-beet, is one of the best of pot-herb 
plants. It ordinarily requires nearly a full season in 
which to mature, although it will give a supply of edible 
foliage from early summer until fall. The chard has 
very broad and thick leaf-blades and midribs, which 
are usually white or tinted rather than green. Some- 
times these are blanched by tying up the bunch of 
foliage. Seeds are sown early in the spring as ordinary 
beet seeds are, and the plants are thinned as used until 
finally they stand 6-12 inches apart in the row. Small 
plants of the common beet, as explained on page 279, 
are often used for greens. 

Orach is allied to the amaranths, or pigweeds. It is 
grown for the large succulent root-leaves. It is essen- 
tially a cool -season plant, the seed being sown early in 
the spring and the foliage used before midsummer. By 
midsummer, or later, the plant sends up a strong flower- 
stalk four or five feet high, and thereafter it is of no use 
as a pot-herb plant. 

Mustard is much used for greens in home gardens, 
and it is also grown to a large extent in parts of the 
South, where the climate is too hot for many other pot- 
herb crops. Some of the improved varieties of curled- 



352 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

leaved mustard are amongst the best of all pot-herb 
plants. In midsummer the plants run to seed. The 
seeds are sown very early in spring, and the tender 
bunch of foliage is ready for use in May or June. In 
fact, even in the northern states, on sandy warm soil 
the seeds may be sown in the fall and the plants will 
be ready for use in early spring, although the seeds 
may not germinate in the fall. Care should be exer- 
cised not to let the plants seed themselves too freely, 
as they are likely to escape into unoccupied areas and 
become weedy. In the South, the Southern Giant- 
Curled Mustard is much used, largely taking the place 
of both spinach and lettuce. The Chinese Broad -Leaved 
is a most robust plant, and gives a large amount of 
herbage. The mustards represent several species of 
Brassica. 

Chinese cabbage, or Pe-tsai, resembles a large and 
dense -headed lettuce plant rather than a cabbage. It 
is really a mustard. It is one of the best and most 
delicate -flavored of all the pot-herb plants. It is little 
known in this country, and people usually make the 
mistake of treating it like an ordinary cabbage. It is 
a cool -season succession -plant, and runs to seed with- 
out making much foliage if sown late in the season. 
It should be sown very early in the spring, like mustard. 
It may also be grown as a fall crop by sowing the seeds 
late in the summer, or early in the fall in the more 
southern parts. When well grown, the plant makes a 
thick, oblong head, resembling a Cos lettuce, and the 
broad white midribs and tender leaf-blades make it a 
very acceptable product. 



Dandelion 



353 



Dandelion, — The dandelion has been much improved 
by the French, and is grown in Europe to a considerable 
extent as a garden plant. It is also grown in private 
gardens of this country, and in parts of the East it is an 
important commercial crop. Some of the varieties with 
large leaves and others with cut or frilled leaves are 
great improvements on the wild plant, and the foliage 
is often handsome for garnishing as well as useful for 
food. In cultivation the dandelion is treated as an 
annual crop. The seed is sown in early spring and 
the crop is harvested in the fall, or the plants are 
allowed to remain in the ground until the following 
spring. Although dandelion will grow anywhere, it 
must have deep rich soil and good tillage if it is to make 
large and succulent foliage. Occasionally the seed is 
sown in seed-beds or in frames, and the plants are 
transplanted to the field; but usually the seeds are sown 
where the plants are to stand. The young plants are 
thinned until they stand one foot apart in the row. The 
distance between the rows will depend entirely on the 
value of the land and the means that are employed for 
tilling. If the plantation is to be tilled by hand tools, 
the plants may be allowed to stand as close as one foot 
apart each way; but if horse tools are used, the rows 
should be two or more feet apart. Since the demand for 
greens is usually greatest in early spring, the plants are 
generally allowed to stand where they grow through the 
winter. They are then ready for use as soon as the early 
growth starts. The rosette of foliage should be dense 
and wide -spreading, covering a space from 12-20 inches 
across. The crop is harvested by cutting off the rosette 

w 



354 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



of leaves just at the crown. The land is then plowed, 
and there is no danger that the plant will become a 
pest. The small and inferior plants which are not fit 
for sale should also be cut in order to prevent them 
from going to seed and becoming a nuisance. The roots 
of the garden -grown dandelion are sometimes taken up 
in the fall and removed to the hotbed or forcing -house, 

and greens may be 
had during the cold 
weather . Sometimes 
they are forced in 
this way in a dark 
place in order to give 
blanched leaves. Even 
in the field the leaves 
may be tied up so as 
to blanch the inner 
part of the crown, 
much as endive is 
treated. 

Purslane^ oi pus- 
ley, has been much 
improved by the arts 
of the plant -breeder. 
The ordinary pusley 
of the field is a weak- 
stemmed plant trailing on the ground, whereas the im- 
proved, or French purslane, grows more or less erect, 
and has very thick and succulent stems and very large 
leaves. Fig. 104. It is easily grown in any good, quick 
garden soil from seeds sown in early spring where the 




Fig. 104. Spray of Frencli piirslane (X 3^). 



Various Pot- Herbs 



355 



plants are to stand. It matures quickly, and, unlike 
many other kinds of pot-herb plants, it is not injured by 
warm weather. However, the crop is usually harvested 
before midsummer, as greens are not in demand at that 
time. There seems to be little danger of the cultivated 
purslane self-sowing and becoming a bad weed. 

Other Pot-herb Plants. — To the plants discussed in 
the foregoing pages, several others might be added. 
The strawberry blite ( Chenopodmm capitatum or Blitum 
capitatum) is a native pigweed -like annual of easy cul- 
ture, which is sometimes offered by seedsmen. It seems 
to have no unusual merits. An allied plant is Quinoa, 
which is grown in all ways like orach. Kale (see Chap- 
ter XII) is really a pot-herb plant; and it would not be 
great violence to include cabbage in this group. Several 
docks and sorrels are grown as pot-herbs, but as these 
are perennial they are discussed in Chapter XX. 



CHAPTER XIV 



SALAD CROPS 

Lettuce, Celery, 

Endive, Celeriac. 

Chicory, 

Cress, 

Corn Salad, 

Parsley, 

As a general statement, it may he said that salad 
plants require cool moist soil, and a quicJc continuous 
growth if the best results are attained. They are often 
henefited by a special apjjlication of qiiichly available fer- 
tilizers during grotvth, particularly of nitrogen in those 
species tvhich are desired chiefly for a quick grotvth of 
leaves. The plants included in this chapter are a some- 
what heterogeneous company, and it is difficult to state 
principles that apply to all of them. They are closely 
connected with the pot-herb crops. Celery and lettuce 
have little in common, but the above grouping seems to be 
as satisfactory as any. Some of the plants are used both 
as salads and pot-herbs, as endive; but they are placed 
in the group to which their most common use assigns 
them . A salad is eaten uncooked ; a pot - herb or greens " 
is boiled. Horse-radish is properly a salad plant. 

On the necessity of giving extra care to the rearing 
of salad plants, Waugh writes* as follows: "Doubtless 

*Bull. 54, Vt. Exp. Sta. ^' 

(356) 



Salad Plants — Lettuce 



357 



all vegetables ought to be fresh; but with salad plants 
the demand is imperative. A good salad cannot be made 
from wilted or stale plants. For this reason the best 
salads are practically prohibited to people who do not 
have their own gardens. The plants should be freshly 
picked within half an hour of meal time. Up to this 
time they should have been rapidly and vigorously 
grown. A rich spot of ground, plenty of water, clean 
and thorough culture with favorable weather, must com- 
bine for best results. Dry, tough, wilted, weed-choked 
plants are not worth gathering. Yet most of the true 
salad plants reach edible maturity so quickly that any 
reasonable attention should secure good returns. Here 
again it is not time and money that are required for suc- 
cess, but a little thoughtful promptness of action.'^ 

LETTUCE 

Lettuce is a hardy, cool -season, short -season succes- 
sion- or companion -crop, requiring mellow, moist soil, 
quickly available fertilizers and continuous growth from 
start to finish. In this country it is known in the open 
mostly as an early spring crop. It is very easy of cul- 
ture in rich and ivell-prepared soil. 

Lettuce is usually grown as a seed-bed crop. It 
is always a succession- or companion -crop. In some 
cases, particularly for the raidseason and later crops, 
the seed may be sown where the plants are to stand. 
Lettuce is little grown in America during the hot sum- 
mer months. There are certain varieties, however, 
which thrive in the hot weather, those of the Cos strain 



358 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

perhaps being the best. Lettuce may be followed by- 
cabbages, early cauliflower, celery or various other suc- 
cession-crops. Sometimes lettuce is transplanted be- 
tween the plants of early cabbages or cauliflowers, since 
it will mature before the other plants need all the space. 
-Such companion -cropping is shown in Fig. 106. Let- 
tuce may be grown in the fall from seeds that are sown 




Fig. 105. Lettuce seedlings. Natural size. 



late in August or in September. In such case it is best 
to sow in a seed-bed, because the moisture conditions 
can be controlled better, and a field is usually too dry 
at that time of the year to give quick germination. It 
is essential that lettuce make a quick and succulent 
growth to be at its best. The large -heading varieties 
are not so much grown as the others, since they demand 
somewhat greater care and are more particular as to soil. 
Lettuce usually does best in a soil that is loose and 
warm, or one that the gardeners call quick.'' Soils 



Lettuce 



359 



that are very heavy, and particularly those that have 
much clay, are ill -adapted to the crop. For the late 
spring and summer crops the seed is usually sown rather 
thickly and the thinnings are used on the table. The 
plants that are to attain the largest size should stand 
as much as a foot apart. 




Fig. 106. Lettuce as a companion-crop to cabbage. 



Successional sowings may be made as often as once 
in ten days to three weeks. The earliest spring lettuce 
taken from the open is usually started in frames or 
forcing -houses, or sometimes in boxes in the house. If 
one^s soil is moist, and particularly if the exposure is 
somewhat cool, the ordinary spring lettuce may be 
grown with success throughout the summer. In order 
to secure a quick growth, it is sometimes advisable to 



360 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardeiii^ig 



apply nitrate of soda soon after the plants are set. The 
nitrate is usually sprinkled broadcast on the surface and 
raked or cultivated in. An application at the rate of 
200-300 pounds to the acre may be made with o:ood 
results. The surface of the ground should be kept well 
tilled in order to conserve the moisture and to promote 
all those activities which result in quick growth. 

Lettuce is commonly grown in rows 8-12 inches apart, and 
thinned eventually, as the young plants are taken out, to 6-12 
inches apart in the row. For early use, start in forcing-house, 
frame or kitchen. Sow in succession till warm weather. Calcu- 
late on 1,000 plants for each ounce of seed. Most of the forcing 
varieties, started under glass, are good for early use, as Tennisball, 
Boston Market, Simpson. For summer use, plant varieties that 
withstand the heat, as Deacon, Hanson, Summer Cabbage, Cos. 

Lettuce {Lactuca saiiva) is probably native to Europe and 
Asia, although its wild prototype is not definitely known. By some 
it is supposed to have descended from Lactuca Scariola, a tall homely 
plant that has now become a weed in many parts of the country. 
There are four well-marked tribes or races, — head lettuce, cut- or 
curled-leaved, Cos, and narrow- leaved. The last is little known 
to gardeners. Goff (in 4th Rept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., pp. 156-202) 
reduces the varieties to 87. His classification is as follows: 

A. Leaves roundish or but slightly oblong, spreading. 
B. Borders of leaves plain or nearly so. 
c. Foliage green, 
cc. Foliage more or less tinged or spotted with 
red, brown, or purple. 
BB. Borders of leaves ruffled. 

(Color divisions as above.) 
AA. Leaves oblong, tending to grow upright. 
B. Leaves oval or spatulate. 

(Color divisions as above.) 
BB. Leaves lanceolate. 
AAA. Leaves pinnately lobed. 



Lettuce — Endive 



361 



Kinney (10th Rept. R. I. Exp. Sta., 1897) classifies lettuce 
chiefly on the shape, color and margin -characters of the leaves. 
He describes 99 varieties. A condensation of his scheme is as 
follows : 

A. Leaves entire near the apex. 

B. Leaves as long as or longer than broad, 
c. Color red or blotched. 

(Minor divisions.) 
cc. Color green. 

(Minor divisions.) 
BB. Leaves not as long as broad. 
AA. Leaves dentate near apex. 

(Divisions much as in a.) 

American seedsmen offered 119 varieties of lettuce in 1889. 
For history, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., Nov., 1888, pp. 984-7. 
Field-grown lettuce has few enemies. 

ENDIVE * 

Endive affords a good supplement to lettuce, since it 
is essentially a summer and fall crop and thrives at a 
season when lettuce is somewhat difficult to grow to per- 
fection. The culture is not milike that of lettuce, except 
that the plant requires a longer time in which to mature. 
Seeds sown in June may be expected to give plants 
fit for the table by August and September. 

In respect to soil, tillage, distance apart and other 
treatment, the care of endive differs little from that of 
lettuce. The plants should stand about a foot apart 
each way. The green, rank leaves are likely to be bitter 

*One desiring accessible historical sketches of some of the following vegetables 
may consult Sturtevant's writings in American Naturalist: Endive, Nov., 1887, p. 
980; Chicory, Aug., 1887, p. 711; Cress, Oct., 1887, p. 903; Corn Salad, Sept., 1887, p. 
831; Parsley, Jan., 1890, p. 42. 



362 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

and tough. It is customary to blanch the interior leaves 
' of the crown or head by gathering all the leaves into a 
bunch and tying them near the top. By thus excluding 
the light, the inner leaves are whitened. This tying 
is done two or three weeks before the plant is desired for 




Fig. 107. Endive seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



use. In very hot and wet weather the heads are some- 
times blanched in ten days ; but under ordinary condi- 
tions it requires nearly or quite twice that length of 
time. If heavy rains and cloudy weather follow the 
tying, the crowns must be examined occasionally to see 
that they are not decaying. After the interior leaves 
are well blanched, they must be used quickly or decay 
will set in. The later plants, taken in the fall, are some- 
times blanched by being set in cellars or pits; or if the 
heads are packed securely in well- ventilated barrels, they 
may blanch in transportation. 

Endive is little known to people of American parentage, al- 
though it is much prized by foreigners and there is considerable 
demand for it in the larger cities. It deserves to be better known. 



Endive — Chicory 



363 



Endive is a perennial or biennial, Cichorium Endivia, closely allied 
to chicory. 

"Endive is frequently blanched like celery or Cos lettuce, by 
tying up the leaves, drawing the soil up to the plants, and similar 
means. When blanched in this way, the white varieties especially 
give very pretty white leaves from the inside of the head. For eat- 
ing cooked, however, we prefer to take the plants quite young, and 
before they have had time to make heads. With ordinary outdoor 
culture they will lose rather than gain in tenderness between this 
stage and the time when satisfactory heads can be produced. 

"Endive may be sown early in coldframes or in the open 
ground like lettuce. Sowings may also be made at anytime during 
the summer, although plants grown in the heat of midsummer have 
not the best quality. Fall-grown plants may be taken up with a 
good supply of adhering earth and stored in a dry cellar or cold- 
frame for winter use. From forty- five to fifty days is required to 
grow the crop."— i^'. A. Waugh, Bull. 54, Vt. Exp. Sta., on "Salad 
Plants." 

CHICORY 

The tender blanched leaves that arise from the 
crowns of chicory roots make excellent salads. The un- 
blanched leaves are sometimes used for greens, as dande- 
lions are. The plants are groivn as root-crojjs are ; the 
leaves are gathered in their natural state, or are developed 
from roots that are transferred to a dark place. 

The roots are grown as parsnips or carrots are, and 
cuttings of leaves may be made during the season. 
One may also leave the roots in the ground over win- 
ter and gather the crown of leaves in the spring, or he 
may take them to the cellar or greenhouse and secure 
the leaves in winter. It is usually preferable to grow a 
new lot of plants each year. 

For the production of blanched leaves, the strong 



364 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

roots are usually taken up in the fall. The roots are 
buried in a sloping direction in sand in a pit or cellar, 
the crown projecting* an inch or so above the earth. 
The place should be kept dark. In a month or less, the 
small leaves (sometimes known as barbe de capucin) 
are produced. 

Or, the best roots may be trimmed and then planted 
upright under greenhouse benches, and the crowns cov- 
ered two feet with manure or other loose material. The 




Fig. 108. Seedlings of chicory. Two-thirds natural size. 



crown of leaves forming beneath the manure will resem- 
ble small heads of lettuce. These heads are often 
known as witloof . 

Chicory is also grown for the roots, which are eaten as 
carrots or beets are. The young tender roots are chosen. 

The dry roots of chicory are also used as a substitute 
for coffee, and the plant is now coming to be grown in 
this country for that purpose. See Circular 29, U. S. 
Dept. Agric, 1900. 

Chicory (Gichorium Intybtts) is a perennial tall- 
growing blue -flowered plant of the Composite family. 



Cresses 



365 



CRESS 

Cresses are grown for their piquant leaves, which are 
used in salads and garnishings. There are three kinds of 
cresses in somewhat common cultivation, belonging to 
three genera, although they are all members of the Cru- 
ciferae or mustard family. 

Water cress {NasfAirtium officinale) is a prostrate 
perennial, with small, roundish leaves, thriving in very 
moist places and in running water. It is readily propa- 
gated by seeds, which may be scattered along cool 
brooks, or by bits of the stems planted in the mud. In 
order that it may reach its best development, the water 
should be pure, cool, and clean. When once established 
in a permanent place, it will persist indefinitely, taking 
care of itself. When a natural brook is not to be had, 
it may be grown in a moist, shady place in the garden 
where it may be watered frequently. Sometimes it is 
grown in the pit of an abandoned hotbed, into which 
water may be run with a hose. If the ground is kept 
moist, or even wet, the plant will thrive and it will not 
be necessary to have it covered with water. The plant 
is best grown, however, by being colonized along brook- 
sides and about springs. 

The common garden cress {Lepidium sativum) is a 
short-season annual. Fig. 109. It is a cool- weather 
plant. Usually the leaves are not desired in the sum- 
mer. Seeds may be sown as soon as the ground is fit in 
the spring, for the plant is hardy or half-hardy. A 
rather cool and rich soil is to be chosen, for the value of 
the foliage will depend, to a large extent, on the vigor of 



366 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

its growth. Late in the season and in warm weather, 
the plant runs quickly to seed. For fall use, the seeds 
may be sown late in summer and in early fall. It is 
easily grown in pots or boxes in the house in winter. 




Fig. 109. Curled cress seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



Leaves fit for use may be had in six to eight weeks from 
the sowing of the seed, under ordinary conditions. 
There are a number of varieties, some of them with 
beautifully curled foliage. The garden cress is less pop- 
ular in America than abroad. 

The upland or upright cress (Barbarea vulgaris and 
B.prcecox) is usually a biennial, the young plants becom- 
ing established from seeds dropped in summer, and send- 
ing up the flower-stalks early the following spring. In 
cultivation, it is treated as an annual or as a winter per- 
ennial. The seeds may be sown late in the season and 
the young plants are ready for use the following spring; 
or seeds may be sown in earliest spring. The plant is 
perfectly hardy and it is common in the natural state 
over a large part of the United States. Although a com- 
mon plant, it is little known in general cultivation either 
in this country or abroad. 



Cress — Corn Salad 



367 



" Upland cress bears a considerable resemblance, both in form 
and flavor, to the better known water cress. It will be acceptable 
to many gardeners and cooks on that account. The leaves lie flat 
upon the ground, and are thereby apt to be soiled by rains. The 
plant does not run rapidly to seed, as does the garden cress, but 
during hot weather the leaves soon become tough and bitter. The 
summer crops are better grown in partly shaded situations. The 
upland cress requires a longer time from planting to picking than 
the garden cress. The crop sown this year July 28, was ready 
September 18, or fifty-two days after sowing. This term might 
doubtless be shortened by treatment proper to that end." — F. A. 
Waugh, Bull. 54, Vt. Exp. Sta. 



CORN SALAD 

Corn salad is grown as lettuce is. It is a cool -sea- 
son crop. It is hardy and may be sown as soon as the 
ground is fit in spring. It matures in six to eight 
weeks, giving a bunch of leaves somewhat like small- 
leaved spinach. In warm weather and in dry places, the 
plant soon runs to seed. It may be sown in the fall and 




Fig. 110. Corn salad seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



protected in winter as advised for spinach. If sown late 
in summer, the plant will give edible herbage in the fall, 
and in a mild climate or an open winter it may be used 
all winter. 



368 Tlie Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

Corn salad or fetticus (Fig. 110) is used both as 
salad and pot -herb, chiefly the former. It belongs to 
the Valerian family, and is known to botanists as Valer- 
ianella oUtoria, It is native to Europe. The plant is 
little known in America, but is prized as a fall and win- 
ter salad abroad. It is very easy of culture in any cool 
soil. Plants should stand about 6 in. apart in the row. 
An ounce of seed should give 2,000-3,000 plants. 

PARSLEY 

A cool moist soil is best suited to parsley. Not all the 
leaves should be removed from the plant at any one time. 
Parsley demands no special care. 

Parsley is the most popular of all garnishing herbs. 
The leaves are used also for salads and for flavoring. 




Fig. 111. Parsley seedlings. Natural size. 



The plant is biennial, but the foliage is gathered the first 
year, and the plants are then destroyed unless seed is 
wanted. The seed is slow to germinate, and it is best to 
sow in a seed-bed unless the ground is in excellent tilth 



' Parsley — Chervil 



369 



and is moist to the top. Thin or transplant to 8 to 12 
inches apart each way. Make successional sowings. It 
usually requires three months from sowing to bring good 
foliage for gathering. The strongest plants may be 
covered with sash, and leaves may then be gathered all 
winter. The plants will stand considerable frost. It is 
a good plan to lift a few roots in late fall and set them 
in pots or boxes in the house : from these a winter sup- 
ply may be secured. 

Parsley (Fig. Ill) is one of the Umbelliferae or Pars- 
nip family. It is more or less subject to parsnip and 
celery insects and diseases. It is native to S. Europe. 
To botanists it is known as Cartun Pefroselinum. 

SALAD CHERVIL 

The salad chervil is an annual plant much like 
parsley and very popular in Europe, but little known in 
this country. It is used for garnishing and seasoning, 
for which the curled-leaved variety is the most popular. 
The plant is of easy culture, giving a cutting of leaves 
in six to eight weeks from the seed. It does not thrive 
in our hot, dry summers, and therefore should be grown 
as a spring or fall crop, unless the particular location is 
cool. It is hardy, and where winters are not severe 
can be carried over the cold season by light cold-frames 
or even by protection of brush. The plant reaches a 
height of nearly two feet when mature, but the young 
foliage is most desired. The plants should stand 10 to 12 
inches apart. Salad chervil is Scandix Cerefolium, one of 
the Umbelliferae, native to southern Europe. For turnip- 
rooted chervil, which is another plant, see Chapter IX. 
X 



370 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



CELERY 

Cool, very rich and very 7noist land, the best surface 
tillage and the most careful attention to all care of the 
plant, are requisites of good celery culture. Celery is 
always a seed-bed crop. It may be treated as a succes- 
sion- or companion -crop, although it usually is the sole 
occupant of the land in any season. The leaf-stalJcs, 
which are the edible parts, must ahvays be blanched. 
The crop must be stored from frost if kept during winter. 

Celery is nearly always grown on bottom lands be- 
cause it then receives a sufficient and constant supply 
of moisture. Usually, also, such lands are very rich. 
Celery of excellent quality can be grown on uplands; 
but ordinarily more care is required in securing deep 
tillage and in conserving moisture, and more expense 
is entailed in adding fertilizers. Successful commercial 
celery growing on high lands is usually possible only 
when much stable manure is added and when irriga- 
tion is practiced. Under those conditions, however, the 
celery grown on high lands may be fully as good as that 
raised in reclaimed marshes. For home use celery can 
be grown in almost any well -tilled and rich garden soil. 
Level black-soil marsh or bottom lands, in which the 
water-table does not fall below 2 or 3 feet in summer, are 
usually chosen for commercial celery growing. Fig. 113. 

Celery is always a transplanted crop. The seeds are 
small and slow to germinate, and the seedlings are deli- 
cate. Fig. 112. It is only in a well-prepared seed-bed 
that satisfactory results can be expected in raising the 
plants. This seed-bed should have perfect surface tilth 



Celery 



371 



and should retain moisture to the top. Preferably, it 
should be protected from hot and dry winds. Some per- 
sons prefer to have the bed partially shaded; but if the 
shading is too dense, the plants are likely to be soft and 
tender when taken to the field, and they are killed by 
sun-scald. It is advisable, whenever possible, to have 
the seed-bed in such place that it can be watered every 




Pig. 112. Celery seedlings. Natural size. 



evening if necessary; but care must be exercised that 
the watering is not so heavy that it packs and puddles 
the soil. Sometimes the bed is covered with boards, 
brush or straw, in order to maintain the moisture until 
germination has taken place. This may be advisable, but 
if the covering is left on too long, the plants make a 
very weak and spindling growth and are worthless. If 
covering is used, it is well to remove it gradually as the 
plants germinate. The ideal seed-bed, however, is one 
that does not need a cover, but which holds the moisture 
of itself. In order to secure stocky plants, they should 
be transplanted once or twice in the seed-bed, or they 



372 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



may be thinned until they finally stand at 2 or 3 inches 
apart. The labor of transplanting is so great that most 
growers now prefer to secure stocky plants by the thin- 
ning process and then by shearing off the remaining 
plants when they become too tall. The plants may be 
cut back a third or a half their growth by shears or 
sickle, or on large beds by a scythe. 

Celery is grown as a short -season crop; that is, it 
does not occupy the land during the whole of the grow- 
ing season. The main crop is sometimes planted as a 
succession, early cabbages or other spring crops having 
been grown on the land. In the case of lowland celery 
fields, however, the celery crop is commonly the only 
one grown, since the land is usually too wet in the 
spring to allow of any early planting. In some celery- 
growing regions, two or three crops of celery are raised 
on the land at the same time, the later or main crop 
being planted between the rows of the early crop. The 
main or late crop, which is used for winter consumption, 
may be planted in the field as late as the middle or last 
of July in the northern states. The early crop may be 
set in the field as soon as the weather is settled in the 
spring, but there is relatively little demand for very 
early celery. The plants should be 4 or 5 inches high f 
and stocky and dark green when they are planted. 
Plants are usually set from 6 to 12 inches apart in the | 
rows, and the distance between the rows varies with I 
the method of blanching. 

Celery must be crisp, tender and well blanched to be 
fit for use. The blanching is accomplished by exclud- 
ing the light. There are three common methods of 




I 
i 



374 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



blanching celery in vogue at the present day: by the use 
of boards; banking up with earth; blanching in pits or 
storage. 

Blanching by means of boards (see Fig. 113) is em- 
ployed only for the early or summer celery, because 
protection from frost must be supplied to the celery 
which remains in the field after the first of October, 
and the boards usually do not afford sufficient protec- 
tion. Use boards one foot wide and one inch thick, and 
about twelve or fourteen feet long. If the boards are 
much longer than this, they are awkward to handle. 
These boards are set on edge close against the crown of 
the plant, one on either side of the row, and the tops 
are tipped together until they are onl}^ two or three 
inches apart or until they rest against the plants^. The 
boards are held in this position by cleats nailed across 
the top, or by wire hooks. The first boarding" is 
made when the celery is only tall enough to show a few 
of its leaves above the boards. The plants shoot up for I 
light, making slender, soft stalks. The foliage fills the 
space between the boards and excludes the light from 
above. In from ten to twenty days in warm growing" 
weather, the celery may be blanched by this method. 
In any means of blanching in summer one must see 
that the plants do not rot at the heart, as they are likely \ 
to do if they are too wet at the core. The board 
method of blanching celery is one of the most economi- 
cal and is now extensively used in the large celery 
fields. Growers usually find that it pays to obtain a good 
quality of lumber and to use it year after year. Some . 
commercial growers think it best to have the lumber ^ I 



Blanchmg Celery 



375 



dressed on both sides. In the boarding system the 
rows may be put simply far enough apart to allow of 
good horse tillage, say from 2 to 3 feet. 

Blanching by earth usually gives a somewhat better 
quality of celery; but this method of blanching is 
expensive and it cannot be employed so well in mid- 
summer, since the plants are more likely to rot at the 
heart. Usually two or three ^'handlings" or bankings 
are given. When the plants have spread so much as to 
make a crown or head a foot or eighteen inches across, 
the celery is handled'^ by gathering the leaves in the 



hand and holding them whilst earth is shoveled against 
the plant so as to cover it two -thirds or more of its 
height. In ten days or two weeks the handling'^ is 
repeated. In late years the banking of celery, particu- 
larly in large areas, is done almost entirely by means 
of celery plows, which are implements with very high 
moldboards that throw a great quantity of earth against 
the plant. Fig. 114. If celery is to be blanched by the 
banking process, the rows are rarely less than 3% feet 
apart, and if the tall -growing varieties are used, the 
rows are often put at 4 feet. 




Fig. 114. Celery hiller. Planet Jr. 



37G The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

Late winter celery is ordinarily blanched in storage. 
If it is thoroughly blanched before putting in storage, it 
will not keep well. It is usually advisable, however, to 
handle the crop at least once in the field in order to 
induce a straight, upright growth and to begin the 
blanching process. Thereafter the plants are set in 
pits or sheds so close together that the blanching pro- 
ceeds. 

Still a fourth system of blanching has been advocated 
in the last few years in the system known as the ^^new 
celery culture.'^ This consists in growing the plants so 
close that the light is excluded and the plants blanch 
themselves. Plants are usually grown as close as 6 or 
8 inches apart either w^ay. It will be seen that this 
system can be used only when the soil is very rich and 
when there is a large supply of moisture. Under ordi- 
nary conditions, it is not successful. Whenever the 
water-table is close to the surface or when one can 
practice irrigation, it may be considered. It is usually 
successful in small home gardens where one can use a 
hose. 

There are two or three methods of storing celery. 
Storing in outside cellars or pits has already been 
described on pages 229, 232. The early winter and mid- 
winter celery, however, is usually stored in special celery 
houses, which are permanent sheds with windows at 
intervals along the roof, in order to supply light enough | 
for the workmen. Wooden chimney's are provided to 
afford ventilation. These houses are sometimes provided 
with heat by means of stoves, so that the temperature 
does not fall much, if any, below the freezing point. 



Celery 



377 



In beds in these houses the celery plants are set close 
together and the blanching proceeds during storage. 

For market, celery is prepared by being thoroughly 
washed and usually scrubbed, so that all earth and sand 
are removed. The outside leaves are removed and 
usually the root is trimmed away, leaving a pointed base 
to the whole cluster. These plants are then shipped in 
open trays or boxes, the style of box and the number to 
be packed in each depending largely on the market in 
which one sells. 

In celery, calculate from 20,000 to 30,000 plants per acre. 
There is usually much loss in seeds and young plants, and it is 
therefore advisable to sow the seed very thick. One ounce of seed 
to 200 feet of row in the seed-bed is a liberal allowance. Some 
gardeners estimate 2,000 good plants from each ounce of seed, but 
this allows for an unusual amount of loss. An ounce should give 
from 5,000 to 10,000 good plants, after allowing for several times 
that amount in loss. One pound of celery seed should give enough 
strong plants to set four to five acres. 

Celery is planted 6 to 12 inches apart in the row. The rows 
vary from 2 to 4 feet apart. In the "new celery culture," or 
self-blanching system, the plants are set 6 to 7 inches apart each 
way, requiring about 150,000 to the acre. 

White Plume, Golden Self-Blanching, and Kalamazoo are 
popular summer and fall varieties, and are also used for winter. 
For late winter or spring use, the product being blanched in pits, 
Boston Market or Arlington is a standard. There are pink- stemmed 
varieties; also very tall varieties, now little grown. 

Thirty-seven varieties were advertised by American seedsmen 
in 1889 (Annals Hort.). Sturtevant has written the history of 
celery in Amer. Nat., July, 1886, pp. 599-606. See also brief note 
by the same author in Amer. Nat., Aug., 1887, p. 705. Goff has 
monographed the varieties in 6th Rept. N. Y. State Exp., Sta. (for 
1887), pp. 217-225. He reduces the varieties to 26. The classifi- 
catory scheme is as follows : 



378 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



A. Stems neither self -blanching nor tinted with red. 
AA. Stems not self -blanching, but more or less washed or tinted 
with red. 

AAA. Stems distinctly self- blanching. 

Celery is Apium graveolens of botanists. It belongs to the 
Umbelliferge, together with carrot, parsley, parsnip. It is native 
to Europe, Asia and Africa, and was in cultivation before the 
Christian era. The long, thick, blanching leaf- stalks are a result 
of domestication. If careful attention is not given to selection or 
"rogueing" in the seed-field, the varieties soon run down and 
become green -stemmed, slender, stringy and worthless. 

On insects and diseases, consult : 

Mich. Bull. No 102. Insects injurious to celery. 

Leaf blight. Dept. Agric. Rept. 1886, pp. 117-120; N. J. 12th 
Kept. 1891, p. 250 ; Cornell Bull 132, pp. 203 205; Ct. 21 
Kept., pp. 167-171. Cornell: Copper carbonate. Dip young 
plants in weak solution, and treat young growing plants at 
intervals of 2 weeks. Ct. : Sulfur dusted on. 

Leaf spot, N. Y Bull. 51 ; Cornell Bull. 132. N. Y. : Reject dis- 
eased seed. Treat with Bordeaux in seed bed; continue 
with Bordeaux if attack is anticipated. 

Diseases in storage, Cornell Bull. 132. See p. 229 of this 
book. 

Special celery literature: Consult the special books by Greiner, 
Vaughan, Yan Bochove, Hollister, Rawson, Stewart, Crider. 
Roessle's "How to Cultivate Celery," 1860, long since out of print, 
was the first American Book to be devoted wholly to a special 
vegetable -garden crop. It is beautifully printed in large clear 
type, and it has a colored frontispiece of "Rose Colored Celery." 
Mr. Roessle had other similar handbooks in view, but none of them 
seems to have been published. Greiner's is a general treatise. 
Vaughan' s gives particular attention to methods employed about 
Chicago; Yan Bochove's to Kalamazoo methods; Hollister's to 
large-area work in marsh lands; Rawson's to the Boston methods; 
Stewart's to methods in vogue in Southern Michigan. 



Turnip - rooted Celery 



379 



CELERIAC 

Celeriac is a form of the celery species, in which the 
root is enlarged like a small tuber, and this tuber is the 
edible part. It is used either as a salad or as a cooked 
vegetable. The plant is dwarf and celery-like in appear- 
ance, but requires no blanching. It is grown as cel- 
ery in so far as seed-sowing, transplanting, and tillage 
are concerned. Sometimes the seed is sown where the 
plants are to stand, but since the seeds are as slow to 
germinate as those of celery, this is usually not the best 
plan. The plants are given 6 or 8 inches space in the 
row, and the rows are only far enough apart to allow of 
convenient tillage. The roots may be kept in winter 
by being packed in sand or moss, as other vegetables 
often are. 

Celeriac is much prized abroad, but it is little known to 
native-born Americans. It deserves to be better known. Several 
varieties are offered by American seedsmen ; six were advertised 
in 1889. Goff described five types in 1887 (6th Rept. N. Y. Exp, 
Sta., pp. 215 217). Sturtevant writes of its history in Amer. Nat., 
August, 1887, pp. 703-4. It is known to botanists as Apium 
graveolens var. rapaceiim. It is sometimes known as turnip- rooted 
celery. A good root should be 3-4 inches in diameter. In seed - 
ing, calculate quantity of seed as for celery. 



CHAPTER XV 



PULSE CROPS 
Pea, Beans. 

BoTANiCALLY peas aud beans are very closely re- 
lated, but they have few points in common from the cul- 
tural point of view, since peas are hardy, cool -season 
plants and beans are tender and warm -season plants. 
Both are leguminous crops, and are therefore capable of 
using atmospheric nitrogen. As garden crops, how- 
ever, they may need applications of nitrogen in order to 
secure a quick start, particularly if an early crop is de- 
sired. "It is frequently the wiser economy to apply 
nitrogen, particularly if they are raised upon land which 
has not been previously planted with these crops, and 
thus may not possess the specific nitrogen -gathering 
bacteria.'' * 

PEA 

Peas are a partial -season crop, requiring cool season 
and a soil not over rich ; seed is soivn where the plants are 
to stand; groivn in drills; hardy. 

Garden peas are of the easiest culture. They thrive 
best in spring rather than in summer, but they also 
thrive in fall from late -sown seeds. In summer they 



*Voorhees' Fertilizers, 269. 

(380) 



Pea 381 

are very liable to mildew. Peas and onions are the first 
vegetables to be sown in the open ground. Even before 
freezing weather is past, peas may be planted. It is 
customary to plant them 3-5 inches deep: the roots are 
then deep enough to be in cool and moist soil. 

A light soil is preferable, particularly when earliness 
is desired. A very rich soil tends to make the plants 
run to vine and to delay the crop. Successional sow- 
ings should be made at intervals of six to ten days. 




Fig. 115. Pea seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



For early use, the dwarf varieties should be selected. 
For the main or late crop the tall or climbing sorts, 
which are more productive, are preferred. Pinching-in 
the excessive growths tends to make the tall varieties 
somewhat earlier. Early in August in the Northern 
states dwarf varieties may be sown for fall use. As a 
field crop, peas are now extensively grown for canning 
factories (see Bull. 41, Del. Exp. Sta.). For this pur- 
pose they are sown broadcast or drilled in. If broad- 



382 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



casted they are not tilled. Better results are secured by 
sowing in drills and giving two or three tillings. 

Peas are usually sown in two rows that stand 6-8 inches 
apart. If tall varieties are grown, one row of brush or chicken- 
wire (the wire is better) will answer for both rows; if the dwarf 
kinds are grown, one row will help to support the other. Between 
each two pairs of rows a space should be left wide enough for con- 
venient tillage. The plants should stand 3-4 inches apart in the 
row. One pint of seed of the small -seeded varieties will sow 
100-125 feet of single drill. In drills, 1-2 bushels will sow an 
acre; broadcast, 2-3 bushels. 

Peas are of two kinds : the seed wrinkled and the seed smooth. 
The wrinkled are the better in quality, but the seeds are more 
liable to decay when planted very early. There are dwarf and 
tall varieties of both the wrinkled and smooth types. For very 
early there are many popular strains, as First-of-All, Philadel- 
phia, Daniel O'Rourke, American Wonder, McLean Little Gem, 
Blue Peter. For late, Marrowfat, Champion of England, Tele- 
phone, Telegraph, and Stratagem are popular names. 

A race of peas with edible pods, comparable to string beans, 
is considerably grown abroad but is little known here. These are 
known as edible -podded, or sugar peas. These are of the same 
species as the common pea, Pisum sativum. 

The field pea, with purple -and -white flowers and gray angular 
seeds, is probably only a modified form of Pisum sativum. It is 
known as P. sativum variety arvense. The pea is native to south- 
west Europe. It has been cultivated 2,000 years and more. For 
history, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., Feb., 1890, pp. 144-149. 

In 1889 (Annals Hort.), American seedsmen catalogued 154 
names of peas. Goff (in 3d Kept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., pp. 
228-283) fully describes 98 varieties. The main points of his 
classificatory scheme are as follows: 

A. Plant exceeding 4 feet in height. 

B. Seeds cream- colored or white, 
c. Smooth peas. 

D. Pod straight. 
Dr>. Pod recurved. 



Peas — Beans 



383 



cc. Wrinkled peas. 

(Pod as in C.) 
BB. Seeds green, bluish, etc. 
(Divisions as in B. ) 
AA. Half dwarf; plant 2-4 feet high. 
(Divisions as in A.) 
AAA. Dwarf; plant not exceeding 2 feet. 
(Divisions as in a.) 

For insects and diseases, see: 

Pea-weevil or bug, Farmers^ Bull. No. 45; Florida No. 36. 

The leading pea pest. Kill the insect in the dry peas by 

bisulfide of carbon. 
Moth, Canadian Exp. Farms Kept. 1894, p. 187; Kept. 1897, p. 

194. Picking early, and rotation. 
Powdery mildew, N. J. Kept. No. 14, p. 357. Fungicides in 

spray. 

Louse, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 26; Del. Bull. 49. 
Device is used for brushing lice off, the cultivator follow- 
ing. 

BEANS 

Garden hearts represent several species, hut all the com- 
mon Muds are very tender to frost and require a tvarm 
season and sunny exposure ; seed is soivn where the plants 
are to grow ; usually grown in drills, except the tall 
kinds; the common hush hea7is are partial -season plants. 

The cominon bean is grown in two general types: 
the bush bean, and the pole bean. In this country the 
bush bean is by far the more important since its grow- 
ing obviates the labor and expense of providing support 
on which the plants may climb. Bush beans are grown 
both as a field crop and a garden crop. As a garden 
crop they are used mostly as string" beans, the pods 
being picked when they are two-thirds grown, and the 



384 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 



pod and beans together being eaten. There are certain 
strains of bnsh beans that are particularly adapted to 
this use. They are such as have thick and fleshy pods, 
with very little fibrous tissue on the sutures. The pods 
of a good string bean are those which have no "strings." 
The pods snap cleanly in two, and this gives rise to the 
common term of " snap " beans. In order that string 
beans may be of the best quality, they should make a 




Fig. 116. Seedlings of wax bean. Two-thirds natural size. 



rapid and continuous growth. The soil should be rich 
and in excellent tilth. Plant only after the weather has 
become thoroughly settled. In late summer, plant again 
for fall use. A succession may be had all summer. 
Although beans are nitrogen - gathering plants, it is 
nevertheless advisable to apply a little nitrogen at the 
start on land which is not well supplied with humus or 
in which beans have not been grown within a year or two. 

There are other types of garden beans used as "shell" 
beans. The large, soft seeds are used just before they 



Beans 



385 



begin to harden, and the pods are not eaten. Some of 
the best of these shell beans are pole or running varie- 
ties, the Cranberry or so-called Horticultural Lima be- 
ing amongst the most popular. 

Lima beans demand a long season and continuous 
growth, particularly the tall or true Lima varieties. 
Very often the flowers are blasted by the hot, dry 
weather of midsummer. It is well, therefore, to get 




Fig, 117. Lima beau seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



the plants established as early as possible in order that 
some of the fruit may set before the hottest weather. It 
is important that only the earliest and quickest soil be 
used and that quickly -available fertilizers be applied 
when the seeds are planted. Soils that are light and 
sandy are usually preferable. In these, plant -food acts 
quickly and the plant secures a good and very early 
start. The tall varieties must have poles. When poles 
are scarce, it is a good plan to set rather strong stakes 
10 to 12 feet apart and to run wires or heavy cord from 

Y 



386 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

pole to pole, one strand near the top and one within a 
foot or so of the ground, and then to connect these 
horizontal strands with perpendicular cords. Sometimes 
several plants or hills of Lima beans are planted in a 
semicircle around one strong stake, and strings are run 
from the top of the stake to the ground, making a cone. 
This is a very good plan for the home garden, since the 




Fig. 118. Broad or Windsor bean seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



vines are well exposed to the sun, but is too laborious for 
general market cultivation. In commercial plantations, 
one bare pole is ordinarily provided for each hill. 

In the northern states, it is usually inadvisable to 
attempt to grow the large, late Lima beans unless one's 
soil is particularly quick and the exposure is very warm. 
The seasons are usually too short, and the nights are 
likely to be too cool. Under such conditions it i& best 



Lima Beans 



387 



to rely largely on the Sieva kinds, none of which are very 
high climbers and some of which, as Henderson and 
Jackson, are nearly or quite ^^bush'' in form and in habit. 
These Sieva beans are very heavy croppers and mature 
in the short seasons of the 
North. Although the beans 
are not very large, the qual- 
ity is good. The dwarf 
Limas are excellent for 
northern gardens. 

Bush beans are sown in 
drills, the rows being 18 to 30 
inches apart to allow of easy 
tillage. The plants should stand 
5 to 10 inches apart in the row. 
One pint will sow from 75 to 
125 feet of drill, depending on 
the variety. In drills, 1 bushel 
to 5 pecks is sown to the acre. 
The tall or pole beans are usu- 
ally grown in hills. 

Lima beans are usually 
grown in hills 3 to 4 feet apart 
each way. Five or 6 plants may 
stand in each hill. 

The White Dutch Runner 
bean {Phaseolus multiflorus) is 
grown as the tall forms of the 
common bean are. Used mostly 
as shell beans, but sometimes 
as snap beans. 

The Broad, Windsor, or 
English Dwarf beans ( Vicia 

Faha) are erect-growing plants, p.^ Willow-leaf Sieva bean, 
much raised in Europe, but lit- Full size. 




388 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 



tie grown in this country because of our hot climate. They are 
used as shell beans; also for stock. They are as hardy as peas. 
Sow early in a cool place in drills 2 to 3 feet apart. 

In 1883, Wing described 102 varieties of beans, distributed in 
several species (2d Rept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., p. 235-259). 
They were first classified into their species. The subdivisions 
were made chiefly on the shapes and colors of the seeds. In 1889, 
American seedsmen listed 141 names of garden beans, 4 of Wind- 
sor or Broad beans, 13 of Limas. 

The garden beans are all members of the Leguminosae. The 
botanical places of the commonest kinds are as follows: 

Bush and ordinary pole beans, Phaseolus vidgaris. Fig. 116. 
Now believed to be a native of tropical America. See 
Gray and Trumbull, Amer. Journ. Sci. 26:130 (Aug. 
1883); Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., May, 1885, pp.. 448-452, 
and April, 1887, pp. 327-333; Wittmack, Berichte der 
Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. 6:374 (1888). 

Sieva or Carolina Limas, Phaseolus lunatus. Tropical Amer- 
ica. Fig. 119. 

Tall or Large Limas, Phaseolus lunatus var. macrocarpus . 
South America. Figs. 117, 120-123. 

White Dutch Runner and Scarlet Runner, Phaseolus multi- 
florous. South America. 

French Yard-Long, DoUehos sesquipedalis. South America. 

Soy., Glycine hispida. Japan. 

Broad or Windsor, Vicia Faha. Asia. Fig. 118. 

Velvet, Mucima utilis, Asia; sometimes eaten. 

For a monograph of the common bean {Phaseolus vulgaris) 
the student should consult Von Martens' "Die Gartenbohnen," 
1869. 

For an account of the Dwarf Limas, see Bailey, Bull. 87, Cor- 
nell Exp. Sta. (1895); of the Pole Limas, Bull. 115, Cornell Exp. 
Sta. (1896). For further history of Lima beans, see Sturtevant, 
Amer. Nat. Aug., 1899, pp. 665-67. 

"The Lima beans are natives of warm countries. The large 
flat Limas are perennials, or at least plur- annuals, in their native 
countries. They therefore require a long season, and one who ex- 



Lima Beans 



389 



pects to grow them in the North should endeavor in every way to 
shorten the period of growth. This may be done, in the first place, 
by planting the earlier varieties; and, in the second place, by ex- 
ercising great care in the selection of soil and in giving particular 
attention to cultivation. Light and so-called ^quick' soils are 
best. Soils which are naturally sandy and loose, but which have 
been enriched in previous years by the addition of manure, are ex- 
cellent for Lima beans, especially if they have a warm exposure. 




Fig. 120. Fig. 121. 

Leaf of Extra-Early Lima, one of Mammoth Kidney-shaped, 
the large Lima class (X M) Half size. 

The soil should also be dry. Coarse, raw manure should be avoided 
for Lima beans, because it tends to make too rank and too late 
growth. If any fertilizer is applied the year in which the beans 
are planted, it should be such as will become available very quickly 
and therefore tend to hasten the maturity of the crop. We prefer, 
therefore, to use some of the concentrated fertilizers, especially 
those which are rich in potash and phosphoric acid, and avoid those 
which contain very much nitrogen. If nitrogenous fertilizers are 



390 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

used at all, they should be applied in comparatively small amount 
and be of such kind that they will give up their fertility early in 
the season. If ordinary stable manure is used, it should be applied 
in the fall in order that it may become thoroughly incorporated 
with the soil and be ready .for use at the' earliest moment in the 
spring." — Cornell Bull. 115. 

The Limas may be thrown into the following classes : 
1. The Sieva or Carolina bean ( P/mseoZw5 lunatus), a small and 
slender grower as compared with the large Limas, early and rela- 



tively hardy, truly annual, with thin, short and mostly broad 
(ovate -pointed) leaflets, numerous small papery pods which are 
much curved on the back and provided with a long upward point 
or tip and which split open and twist when ripe, discharging the 
seeds; beans small and flat, white, brown, or variously marked 
with red. Fig. 119. 

2. The true Lima bean (P. lunatus var. macrocarpus) ^ distin- 
guished from the Sieva by its tall growth, lateness, greater suscepti- 
bility to cold, perennial in tropical climates, large, thick, often 
ovate-lanceolate leaflets, and fewer thick, fleshy, straightish (or 
sometimes latterly curved) pods with a less prominent point and 




Fig. 122. Leaf of Challenger, one of 
the Potato Lima class (X 3^). 



Fig. 123. Challenger. 
Half size. 



Types of Lima Beans 



391 



not readily splitting open at maturity ; seeds much larger, white, 
red, black or speckled. Of this true or large Lima there are 
two types in cultivation: 

{a) The Flat or Large- Seeded Limas, which have large, very flat 
and more or less lunate and veiny seeds, very broad pods 
with a distinct point, and broad ovate leaflets. See Figs. 
120 and 121. Burpee Dwarf is a form of this. 

(b) The Potato Limas, with smaller and tumid seeds, shorter 
and thicker pods with a less prominent point, and long- 
ovate leaflets tapering from a more or less angular base 
into a long apex. See Figs. 122, 123. Challenger and 
Kumerle are examples. There are dwarf forms. 

For insects and diseases of beans, consult: 

Weevil, Lintner, 7th Rept. N. Y. Entomologist, p. 255, very 

full, with ills.; Me. Rept. 1893, p. 171, ill. Use bisulfide 

of carbon, as for pea bag. 
Anthracnose, N. Y. Bull. 48, very fully ill. Remove infected 

seedlings from field. Cover with Bordeaux mixture. 
Rust, N. Y. Bull. 48. 



CHAPTER XVI 



SOLANACEOUS CROPS 

Tomato, Pepper, 
Eggplant, Husk Tomato. 

Tomatoes^ eggplants, and their Mn are hot-season 
plants. They require nearly or quite the entii^e season 
in which to mature. Usually they grow until hilled by 
frost, at least in the North, and the production of a 
heavy crop depends largely on securing an early start. 
They are seed-bed crops, and they need abundance of 
quick -acting fertilizers applied relatively early in their 
groivth. They are grown in hills. 

These plants are here called solanaceous crops be- 
cause they belong to the family Solanaceae. To this fam- 
ily also belongs the potato, so that these plants have not 
the exclusive right to the name; but the writer knows 
of no other single term which can be applied to them. 

TOMATO 

Essential points in the culture of tomato are : long, 
warm season; ^^quick^^ soil with available fertility; fre- 
quent, or at least two or three transplanting s to obtain 
stocky and continuous -growing plants^ particularly in the 
North; early fruiting to mitigate loss from fruit- rot and 
to secure a heavy crop before frost; plantiyig in hills. 

(392) 



Tomato 



393 



In most parts of the United States, the tomato is 
grown with the greatest ease. In fact, the fruit is grown 
more abundantly in this country, and to a greater degree 
of perfection, than elsewhere in the world. The plants 
are usually started from four to eight weeks before they 




Fig. 124. Tomato seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



are transplanted to the field. For the home garden it is 
well to handle the young tomato plants in pots; but in 
commercial operations this is scarcely practicable. The 
present custom is to grow them in small flats not more 
than ten or twelve inches square and that hold about 
two inches of soil. In some cases, even smaller flats are 
used. In these boxes the plants are displayed in the 
grocery stores for sale to amateur planters. In flats of 
various sizes, the plants can be readily handled from the 
frame to the field. In commercial business, the 3^oung 
tomato plants are now rarely transplanted. They are 
thinned in the flats so that they stand two or three 
inches apart each way, or farther than this if the plants 
are started very early. Sometimes the plants are sheared 
if they become too tall and "leggy," although this is not 
the best practice. In the Middle and Southern states, 



394 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



cloth -covered frames are often used for starting tomato 
and other plants. Fig. 125. The cloth is rolled up 
during the day. The securing of a good crop of toma- 
toes in the North depends very largely on having vigor- 
ous and stocky plants that are well in advance of the 




Fig. 125. Cloth-covered frames. 

XJsed in the South for tomatoes, tobacco, and other plants. The 
muslin is used for protection at night and in cold weather, and is rolled 
up, as shown, in the day. (After Earle.) 

season, and a warm, quick soil. The plants should be 
set in the field" as soon as the weather is settled. 
Thereafter they need no special care except to keep the 
land well tilled. 

It is commonly said that very rich soil is not to be 
advised for the tomato. This is probably true as re- 
spects the heavy application of stable manure, for such 



Tomato 



395 



manure usually gives up its fertility somewhat slowly 
and tends to keep the plant in vigorous growth and to 
delay fruiting. If, however, the soil has been made rich 
by previous applications of manure, or of available 
commercial fertilizer early in spring, the best results 
may be expected. Experiments at Cornell University 
have shown that a rather light single application of 
nitrate of soda about the time the plants are set, gives 
better results than twice that amount applied at inter- 
vals as late as the middle of August. 

Tomatoes usually give earlier and better results when 
the vines are trained; but the expense of training pre- 
cludes its use in large commercial plantations. The best 
mode of training for early results is to prune the plant 
to a single stem, tying it to a perpendicular cord. The 
cord is secured at top and bottom to horizontal strands 
which are stretched between strong stakes. When 
tomatoes are trained in this way, they may be set as 
close as 18 inches apart in the row. There are various 
styles of racks for supporting tomato plants. The best 
are those that give the plants full exposure to sun 
and allow all the fruits to hang toward the outside of 
the trellis rather than to be covered by foliage. In com- 
mercial plantations, the plants are allowed to spread as 
they will, although the fruit -rot disease is usually more 
serious under such conditions, particularly if the surface 
soil contains much coarse manure. Pinching-in the 
shoots is thought to conduce to early bearing. 

When frost threatens, the largest green tomatoes may 
be picked and allowed to ripen in drawers or in other 
dry and close places. Usually they color well and develop 



396 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 



a good quality. If the fruits have not reached their full 
size, the whole plant may be pulled with the fruits on 
and hung in a barn or other dry place and the fruits will 
abstract nourishment from the vine and sometimes com- 
plete their ripening. 

Tomatoes are now grown on a very large scale for 
canning factories. They are then a field crop, and are 
given no greater care than corn. A rather light, warm 
soil is chosen. Frame -grown plants are used and they 
may be set with a transplanting machine. Thereafter 
no special treatment is given the crop except to keep 
the land well tilled. 

Tomato plants are usually set 4-5 feet apart each way in rich 
garden soil. In field conditions, they are usually set 3-4 feet. On 
light and early lands they are sometimes planted 3x3 feet. From 
1 ounce of seed, about 2,000 to 2,500 good plants should be 
obtained. At 3x4 feet, an acre will require 3,630 plants. A large 
yield is 12-16 tons to the acre; the average is much below this. 

Varieties quickly run out (see Essay 24, "Survival of the Un- 
like"), and it is scarcely worth while to mention the particular 
kinds in a. book like this. Even though the Trophy name is still in 
catalogues, it is very doubtful whether the variety as originally 
known is now in existence. Large round "smooth" varieties — 
without angles or creases — are now grown almost exclusively. 
Fig. 126. 

" Most commercial growers [in the South] use cotton cloth for 
covering eoldframes, as it is much cheaper than glass, and is 
much easier to handle in opening and closing the beds. Fig. 125. 
Ordinary unbleached, double -width or ten -fourths wide sheeting 
is used. One side is nailed fast to the back side of the bed or in 
double beds to the ridge-pole, and the other is nailed between two 
Ix 2-inch strips, thus making a square roller on which the cur- 
tain is rolled up when it is wished to open the bed. By starting 
with one short and one long piece, so as to break joints, such a 



Tomato Notes 



397 



roller can be made any desired length. It will be necessary to 
provide some extra cover for each coldframe to use on very cold 
nights, for the single thickness of cloth will not turn more than a 
slight frost. The beds should always be well banked at the ends 
and sides with earth."— i^. S. Earle, Bull. 108, Ala. Exp. Sta. 
(1900). 

" Consolidated Summary of Besults of Methods of Training 

YIELD SOUND YIELD ROTTEN PER CENT ROT- 
VINES, HOW TREATED. FRUIT. FRUIT. TEN. 

Untrained 157 lbs. 14 oz. 34 lbs. 7 oz. 20. 

Staked 197 " 5 " 15 " 7 " 7.9 

Hilled.. 184 " 10 " 20 " 14 " 10.8 

Mulched 253 " 14 " 44 " 4 " 17.5 

This summary shows that (a) the smallest yield was given by 
the untrained vines; and that (5) the percentage of rotten fruit on 




■ - / / 

Fig. 126. Type of the large round American tomato. 

these was greater than in any other ease ; that (c) staked vines gave 
a larger percentage of sound fruit than untrained, and {d } showed 
the smallest percentage of decayed fruit in the experiment; {e) 
hilling did not give any striking results; (/) mulching greatly 
increased the productiveness, and {g) also the tendency to rot. 
These are the results obtained during a year of unusually large 
precipitation during June, and marked by light rainfall in August 
and September."— Joj^n Craig, Bull, 47, Iowa Exp. Sta. (1900). 



398 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 



" By pruning, commercial growers mean the pinching out of all 
lateral branches as soon as they appear, thus confining the growth 
strictly to one stem. When about three clusters of fruit are set 
the vines are topped, thus stopping all farther growth of vine, and 
turning the energies of the plant entirely to the growth and ma- 
turing of the fruits that are already set. The advocates of this 
system claim that it greatly increases the size of the individual 
fruits and that the bulk of the crop ripens several days earlier than 
on unpruned plants. Of course each plant produces fewer fruits 
than when allowed to grow unchecked, but this is partly compen- 
sated for by increased size and by the closer planting that is pos- 
sible on this system, thus allowing a greater number of plants to 
the acre. In several of the more important tomato -growing re- 
gions this system is very widely followed." — F. S. Earle, Bull. 108, 
Ala. Exp. Sta. 

Tomatoes in very Severe Locations. — When there is danger of 
frost in August, a sufficient supply of tomatoes for family use 
may be grown on the south side of a house, wall or other pro- 
tection, especially if the plants are covered on cold nights. 
Where this seems to be impracticable, a most excellent way is to 
grow a few plants in barrels placed in warm corners about the 
buildings. To do this, at planting time select a barrel as large 
as a coal-oil barrel, bore three or four holes in the bottom, sink 
the barrel about one -third its depth in the ground and pack the 
earth around it. Fill it about half full of fresh horse manure 
well tramped down and pour a bucketful of hot water on this 
manure. Then put on 8 inches of good soil and then a mixture 
of well -rotted manure and rich black loam in about equal quan- 
tities, until you reach within about 12 inches of the top of the 
barrel ; then heap up manure around the outside. Set three plants 
in this and trim to two shoots each. Train one of these shoots 
from each plant to stakes or nearby building, but allow the other 
three shoots to grow naturally over the sides of the barrel. Be 
careful to give plenty of water daily— a gallon each day will be 
none too much. Three or four old barrels treated in this way and 
placed in sunny exposure will produce all the tomatoes needed by a 
family of four or five persons." — Green, Veg. Gard, 2d ed., p. 197, 



Tomato Notes 



399 



Following are summary conclusions respecting the field culti- 
vation of tomatoes as derived from six years^ experiment (Bull. 
32, Cornell Exp. Sta.): 

^^Fertilizing. — Very heavy fertilizing with stable manures or 
concentrated fertilizers has uniformly increased yield in our ex- 
periments, although the common opinion is to the contrary. But 
in order that fertilizing shall produce early fruits, the food mate- 
rials must be quickly available. If stable manure is desired, only 
the most thoroughly disintegrated part should be used. Nitrate 
of soda is a good tomato fertilizer on soils containing abundance 
of potash and phosphoric acid, but like other incomplete fertiliz- 
ers it has little value when used alone on poor soils. Nitrate of 
soda appears to give heaviest yields when used in two or three 
applications, but in this latitude it should not be applied later 
than the first of August, else it prolongs growth too late. 

" There appear to be differences in varieties as to the readiness 
with which they respond to fertilizing. In our tests of 1891, un- 
improved or Cherry tomatoes, while showing a less increase in 
number of fruits than the large varieties under heavy fertilizing, 
suffered no loss in size of fruits and consequently gave a greater 
proportionate crop. 

"In 1889, tests indicated that poor soil may tend to render 
fruits more angular. [Probably due to the dryness of the poor 
soil.] 

Starting the PlantSj Transplanting j etc. — Frequent trans- 
planting of the young plants and good tillage are necessary to 
best results in tomato culture in this latitude. 

"Plants started under glass about ten weeks before transplant- 
ing into field gave fruits from a week to ten days earlier than 
those started two or three weeks later, while there was a much 
greater difference when the plants were started six weeks later. 
Productiveness is greatly increased by the early planting. 

"Very early setting of stocky plants in the field, even in dark 
and raw weather, augmented earliness and productiveness in 1890. 
This year [1891] the same results were secured except that there 
was less gain in earliness from very early setting. The tomato 
can endure. much more uncongenial weather when set in the fieldl 



400 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



than is commonly supposed. Early setting on well prepared land 
therefore appears to be advisable. 

"In 1891, two transplantings gave better results than one or 
three ; but the value of transplantation depends almost entirely 
upon the eai'liness of sowing, the character of the plants and 
facilities for handling. 

"Seedling plants are better than cuttings. 

"Trimming the plants lightly in midsummer appears to in- 
crease yield and earliness. But it should not be performed in 
this latitude after the first half of August. 

Training. — Training to stakes is not desirable unless the 
plants are pruned. Plants tied to two or three stakes, the vines 
being wound about them, as often recommended, ripen their fruits 
unevenly and the labor of picking from the tangled mass of foli- 
age is great. 

" A platform of boards laid under the plants and supported by 
blocks 4 or 5 inches high and then covered with straw keeps the 
tomatoes clean and renders picking easy, but it appears to in- 
crease the rot. 

"A cheap and rough rack which gives good results is made 
of narrow slats laid crosswise the row upon two parallel bents 
which stand on either side of the row and about 3 feet apart. 
These bents run lengthwise the row and are made by nailing a 
light board to stakes every 6 or 8 feet. The bents or sides stand 
about a foot high. The plants lop on the cross slats — which may 
be laid on loosely — and the fruits ripen uniformly and are usually 
more exempt from rot than those lying on the ground. 

"Training to a single stem greatly increases the yield per 
square foot, gives earlier fruits, and decreases injury from rot. 
This system is advisable for home use, and in some cases for 
market plantations. 

"Hilling the plants twice, as potatoes are hilled, has given no 
beneficial results. 

" ' Leggy ' " or badly drawn plants can be made to give fairly 
good results by setting them deep and burying the larger part of 
the slender stem. But even then they are inferior to stocky 
plants.'^ 



Tomato Notes 



401 



For history of the tomato, see Sturtevant, 6th Rept. N. Y, 
State Exp. Sta., pp. 279-2S4, Amer. Nat., Aug. 1891, pp. 702- 
706, and Sept. 1891, pp. 800-803; Bailey, Bull. 19, Mich. Exp. 
Sta. (1886) and Essay 30, "Survival of the Unlike also chief note 
by Gray & Trumbull, Amer. Journ. Sci. 26, p. 128 (Aug. 1883). 
The tomato is native of Peru, and perhaps of other parts of the 
Andean region. It was cultivated by the aborigines and was early 
taken to Europe. At first, the tomato was grown as a curiosity. 
Its commercial cultivation is scarcely more than 75 years old. In 
1889, American dealers catalogued tomatoes under 81 varietal 
names. In 1887, Goff (6th Rep. N. Y. State Exp. Sta.) described 
65 varieties. 

Following is a botanical classification of the tomato (Bailey, 
Bull. 32, Cornell Exp. Sta.*) : 

The common tomato species, Lycopersicum esculentum, may be 
divided into five primary divisions : the cherry tomatoes (var. 
cerasiforme) , plum and pear tomatoes (var. pyriforme), the common 
market tomatoes (var. vulgare), the large-leaf kinds like Mikado 
(var. grandifoUum) , and the upright or tree sorts (var. validum). 
The common tomatoes (var. vulgare) can again be divided for pur- 
poses of classification into three subdivisions : the oblong, angu- 
lar and apple -shaped tomatoes. The currant tomato is a distinct 
si^ecies, Lycopersicum pimpinellifoUum or "pimpinella-leaved to- 
mato." In tabular form, the classification of the tomato may stand, 
therefore, as follows: 

I. Lycopersicum pimpinellifoUum. This has not yet varied to 
any extent in cultivation, and the one variety is known as the 
Currant and German Raisin. 

II. Lycopersicum esculentum. The parent of all commercial 
tomatoes. 

(a) Var. cerasiforme. Cherry tomatoes, characterized by slen- 
der growth and small light-colored foliage, and small globular 
fruits which are normally 2 -celled. Red and yellow varieties are 
known. 

(5) Var. pyriforme. Pear and plum tomatoes, distinguished 
* Consult also Bull. 19, Mich. Agric. College (1886) , and Bull. 31 (1887). . ■ 
Z 



402 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



from the preceding subdivision chiefly by the pear-shaped or ob- 
long pendent fruit. Red and yellow varieties are known. The 
Nesbit's Victoria has foliage much like that of Section d. 

(c) Var. vulgar e. The common tomatoes, represented by three 
main groups: 

1. Oblong tomatoes : Fruit as long as or longer than broad, 
the walls very thick and firm, the placentae usually not meet- 
ing the inside of the wall, causing the fruit to feel as if 
hollow. Red and purple varieties are known. Represented 
by King Humbert and Criterion. 

2. Angular tomatoes: Fruit medium or below in size, 
mostly very flat, plane on top, more or less cornered, the 
lobes most conspicuous on the bottom and sides. This is the 
type of the original Large Red, the first market tomato. The 
type is almost lost in many of our later improvements, and 
it is now too inconstant, perhaps, to be relied upon as a sec- 
tional character. The angular tomatoes are practically out 
of cultivation in this country. In many of the varieties the 
leaves are singularly curled. Only red varieties are known, 
but many of them are very light or orange-red, and one, the 
German Gestreifte, is striped with orange. 

3. Apple -shaped tomatoes: Fruit various in size or shape, 
but in normal forms more or less rounded on top, the mon- 
strous or overgrown specimens developing a scar- like line or 
ring on the top and the ends of the fruit turning downwards. 
These comprise by far the larger number of the tomatoes of 
the present time. Some of the varieties, like Green Gage, 
Peach, and White Apple, are much like the Cherry tomatoes 
(var. cerasiforme) and should, perhaps, be classed with them. 
Red varieties predominate, but purple, yellow and white va- 
rieties exist. 

(d) Var. grandifolkm. Large -leaf tomatoes. Habit and fruit as 
in section c; leaves very large ; leaflets fewer than common ( about 
two pairs), large (the blade three to four inches long and an inch 
and a half wide), entire, the lower side strongly decurrent. 
Leaves of very young plants entire ! The terminal leaflet is often 
iSix Inches long and four or more inches broad. Represented by 



Tomato — Eggplant 



403 



Mikado, Puritan, Shah, and others. The first of the well-marked 

grandifolium varieties were purple, but a yellow one is grown, 
and this year [1891] a red one (Red Mikado) has appeared. 

(e) Var. validum. Upright tomato. Stem very thick and stout, 
the plants nearly sustaining themselves, two to two and a half 
feet high; leaves very dark green, short and dense, the leaflets 
wrinkled and more or less recurved. An odd plant with much 
the aspect of a potato plant. Represented by the French Upright 
or Tree, which has red fruits. The Dwarf Champion is perhaps 
a cross between this type and the common tomatoes. The Sta- 
tion tomato which is a cross between French Upright and Alpha 
(var. vulgare) has given an interesting series of variations. 

Diseases, etc. The chief diseases of tomatoes are rot and 
blight. There is no specific for either disease. Rot is rarely 
very serious during the entire season. Endeavor to get the crop 
early, before the rot takes it. For blight, practice rotation, and 
burn diseased vines (do not throw them on the manure pile). 
Consult the following : 

Tomato worm, Fla. Bull. 48, desc. and ill.; Ky. Bull. 66. 
Use Paris green. 

Rot and fruit mold, Dept. Agric. Rept. 1888, p. 339, desc. and 
ill. Thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture recom- 
mended by some. See remarks on p. 392, two last lines. 

Scab, Dept. Agric. Rept. 1888, p. 347, desc. and ill.; Conn. 
Bull. 115. Train high and use Bordeaux mixture. 

Blight. Practice rotation. See paragraph above. 

For special literature on tomatoes, consult the books of Living- 
ston, Root, Day, Mitchell. 

EGGPLANT 

The essentials in eggplant culture are practically the 
same as in tomato culture, except that the plant requires 
a still longer season, and greater pains must he taken that 
the young plants are not checked. 



404 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

The eggplant is emphatically a hot - climate crop. 
It is grown in the South to a large extent as a commer- 
cial crop and even as far north as New Jersey and Long 
Island. In the northernmost states, it is grown only for 
lome use, as a rule. It demands a long season, a warm, 
oose and fairly dry soil. It is not adapted to clay 
■ ands. The plants are started under glass, and they 
hould be 6 or 8 inches high and thrifty and stocky 
7hen placed in the field. In the northern states the 
)lants may be even larger than this when transplanted, 
[t is very important, however, that the plant receives 
lo check from the germination of the seed to the set- 
ting of the fruit. If the plants in the forcing-house 
or hotbed become crowded and stunted, and the stems 
begin to harden, the crop will be very much lessened. 
For home use, and sometimes for special market condi- 
tions, it is advisable to handle the young plants in two- 
inch or three -inch pots. They then suffer no check 
when taken to the field. 

The exposure should be warm and sunny. The land 
should not be so moist as that which is best adapted to 
early peas, beets and other cool-season things. The 
ground should be rich also, but it is very important that 
whatever fertilizer is added should be quickly available so 
that the maturity of the crop may not be delayed. Take 
every precaution to forward the crop in order to secure 
it before the closing of the season, particularly in the 
northern states. The ground should be kept in thorough 
tillage from first to last. : 
The fruits are fit for eating from the time they 
are one -third grown until they are nearly or quite fully 



Eggplant 



405 



ripe. Even after the fruits have reached their full size 
and color, they may remain on the plant for a time with- 
out much deterioration, although a very ripe fruit is 
worthless. A heavier 
crop may be secured 
by taking off the fruits 
before they reach 
their full size. It is 
necessary, however, 
that they be well col- 
ored in order to find 
sale in the market, 
and usually, also, the 
fruits of fair or rather 
large size sell best. 
In the northernmost 
states the gardener is 
satisfied if he aver- 
ages two or three good fruits to a plant of the large va- 
rieties. 

Eggplants are set in rows that are far enough apart to admit 
of horse tillage, usually feet. In the rows the plants are 

set from 2-4 feet. The distance is determined largely by the 
variety. An ounce of eggplant seed should give from 2,000 to 
3,000 strong plants. 

The New York Improved and the Black Pekin (Fig. 127) are 
the leading commercial types of eggplant. Good-sized marketable 
fruits of these varieties are 6-9 inches in diameter. Unless 
started very early and given a warm place and quick soil, how- 
ever, these varieties are not likely to yield much before frost in 
the northernmost states. In these short-season climates, some of 
the dwarf varieties, particularly the Early Dwarf Purple, are to 
be advised. The white eggplants are not popular, since the color 




Fig. 127. Black Pekin Eggplant. 



406 The Principles of YegetaMe- Gardening 



is usually of a yellowish cast. There are varieties with striped 
fruits and others with long and coiling fruits, but these are known 
mostly as curiosities. 

Eggplant has been grown from the earliest times. It is prob- 
ably native to India. It is a low spreading, bushy, more or less 
hairy and spiny herb (or subshrub), with large blue flowers. It is 
known also as Aubergine and Guinea Squash. 

It is the Solanum Melongena of botanists, but the aboriginal 
type is not in cultivation. An historical sketch by Sturtevant 
appears in Amer. Nat., Nov., 1887, pp. 975-9. Goff reduced 
the varieties to twelve in 1887 (6t(i Kept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., 
pp. 273-9) ; fourteen names were offered by American seedsmen 
in 1889. He divided them into four main groups on color dis- 
tinctions, and made minor divisions on shape of fruit. In 1891 
the present writer described (in Bull. 26, Cornell Exp. Sta.), 
fifteen varieties. He made the following botanical scheme: 

I. Solanum Melongena^ var. esculentum. Plant stout and erect, 
mostly tall; leaves and branches more or less densely scurfy; 
leaves mostly conspicuously angled or lobed, thick ; flowers large 
and thick, on stout peduncles ; fruit various, globular or oblong, 
white or purple. The ordinary form of the eggplant is w^ell shown 
in Fig. 127. 

Var. serpentinum . This differs from the var. esculentum chiefly 
in the greatly elongated fruit, which is curled at the end, and 
perhaps it is not worth separation. It is a most singular eggplant. 

Var. depressum. Plant low, weak and diffuse, dark colored, 
nearly smooth, always spineless; leaves small and comparatively 
thin, more entire, often scarcely angled; flowers small, mostly 
long-peduncled; fruit purple, pyriform. 

II. Solanum integrifolium . This species is sold as the Chinese 
Scarlet and Ornamental eggplant, and it is the one that has been 
lately distributed as a great novelty under the name of tomato 
eggplant. It goes under the name of Solanum coccineum. Its 
nativity appears to be wholly unknown. Dunal says that S. integri- 
folium is a native of Mauritius, but Baker, in his flora of Mauritius, 
does not mention it. It is probably African. At any rate, it 
appears, to be proper to recall the name under which it was long 



Eggplant 



407 



known in early times, and call it the Ethiopian eggplant. The 
Ethiopian eggplant is a coarse plant three feet high, with large 
lobed leaves and the stems, petioles and midribs armed with strong 
and very sharp spines a half inch long. The small white flowers 
are usually borne in clusters of two to six. The fruit is small, 
rarely much exceeding 2 inches in diameter, bright scarlet or 
yellow and conspicuously lobed after the manner of the old Early 
Red tomato. We have grown two types of this plant, one of 
strong upright growth with purple stems, petioles and midribs, 




Fig. 128. Seedlings of red pepper, or capsicum. Natural size. 



the other of spreading habit and lighter color. The species is 
only curious and ornamental, the fruits not being eaten. 

Two or three obscure fungous diseases attack the eggplant in 
the South, for which the only treatment is to practice rotation and 
to destroy the affected plants. The potato bug often attacks egg- 
plants. Use Paris green, 1 pound to 75-100 gallons of water, and 
plenty of lime. 

For account of leaf spot, see N. J. Rept., 1890, p. 355. Use 
Bordeaux spray. 



408 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



PEPPER 

Peppers require the treatment advised for tomatoes, 
but they will thrive in a rather cooler season and will en - 




Fig. 129. One of the Chili Red Peppers. 



dure some frosty although best results are secured in a 
warm climate. Some of the varieties mature in a rela- 
tively short season. 

Peppers are not an important crop in most parts of 
the country, since their use in cookery is incidental. 



Pepper — Rusk Tomato 



409 



The greatest demand is for the making of mixed pickles, 
and for this purpose the small Cayenne, Chili, and Cran- 
berry varieties are grown. Fig. 129. The large sweet 
peppers," of the Sweet Mountain and Ruby King type, 
are used for the dish known as "stuffed peppers." 

The plants are started in frames, and are set eight to 
twelve inches apart in the row. There are no serious 
pests or diseases. 

The pepper (often called "red pepper," although there are yel- 
low-fruited and white-fruited varieties) is a Capsicum, the common 
garden forms now being referred to one species, C. annuum. It is 
very distinct from the pepper of commerce, which is the fruit of 
Piper nigrum, of another family. The capsicums are native to 
the American tropics. For history, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., 
Feb., 1890, pp. 151-157; also Irish's monograph in 9th Eept. Mo. 
Bot. Gard., pp. 53-110, with many plates (1898). Capsicum annuum 
is remarkably variable, and many of the cultivated forms have been 
described as species at one time or another. Originally the fruit 
had two cells or compart- 
ments, but under the in- 
fluence of domestication, 
the compartments have 
been multiplied. 

HUSK TOMATO 

Two or three spe- 
cies of Physalis are 
cultivated as husk to- 
mato and strawberry 
tomato. They are 
very diffuse or even decumbent hairy herbs that produce 
a yellowish often glutinous berry inside a papery husk. 




Fig. 130. Fruit of a husk tomato. 
Natural size. 



410 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardening 

There are several native species, some of which are 
known as ground cherry. The soft, sweetish fruits are 
sometimes used for preserves and pickles, or they may be 
eaten raw or cooked. The plants are of the easiest cul- 
tivation. In the North it is preferable to start seeds in 
frames. The Cape Gooseberry is a species that rarely 
ripens a full crop in the northern states, but the Dwarf 
Cape Gooseberry produces freely as far north as Ontario. 
The Cape Goosehervy is Phij salts Peruviaria (Fig. 130), 
a tropical species; the Dwarf Cape gooseberry or com- 
mon husk tomato, is P. piibescens, a native species. 
For sketch of the cultivated species, see Bull. 37, Cor- 
nell Exp. Sta. 



CHAPTER XVII 



CUCURBITOUS OB VINE CROPS 



Cucumber, 
Gherkin, 
Muskmelon, 
Watermelon, 



Luff a. 



Pumpkin, 
Squash, 

Preserving Melon, 



Cucurbitolis crops are (mnuals, grown for their fruits ; 
they are tender to frost ; they require a ivarm season and 
a full exposure to sun; they are long-season crops and 
with most of them a quick start is essential in order that 
they may mature the crop before fall ; they are grown in 
hills, as a main crop ; they are planted in the field or in 
frames, depending on the region and the period at which 
the crop is wanted; they transplant with difficulty, and 
if the plants are started in advance of the season they are 
grown in pots, boxes or on sods. 

Cucurbitous crops are so called because they are 
members of the family Cucurbitacea3. They comprise a 
very natural group, both botanically and culturally. 

There are no fundamental differences in the cultiva- 
tion of the various cucurbitous crops. They are all very 
tender to frost and they usually grow, at least in the 
North, till overtaken by frost or disease. They all de- 
mand light and very quick soil. Success lies in gaining an 
early start and in not allowing the plants to suffer a check. 
The one place at which most people fail in growing these 



(411) 



412 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

crops is that the young plants do not secure a quick hold 
on the soil. This is usually due to the fact that the soil 
is not thoroughly well prepared or is not warm and well 
drained, and there is not sufiScient available fertilizer 
within reach of the young plant. In the North, this 
quick start is exceedingly important, since the season is 
so short that every day must be made to count. In cu- 
cumbers, the quick start is not so important as in melons 
and squashes, since the plants come into bearing earlier. 
Many fields of squashes in the North are lost because the 
plants do not get to work before July or August, and 
then the dry weather comes and the blooming is de- 
layed so long that the young fruits are caught by frost. 

All cucurbitous crops are grown in hills. Usually 
each hill should be specially prepared, at least in the 
northern states, and on land that is rather hard and 
coarse. A space 1 or 2 feet across is spaded up loosely, 
and light, loose earth or scrapings from the barnyard are 
mixed with it. A handful of fertilizer should be scattered 
in the soil. If the land is hard and late, it is well to 
remove the soil and to fill the space with fine earth and 
manure. In the warm and light melon lands of the 
South, where the seasons are longer, this precaution 
may not be necessary. 

The young plants are very likely to be ruined by the 
attacks of the striped beetle and other enemies. It is im- 
portant, therefore, that the seed be sown freely. If one- 
fourth or one -fifth of the plants escape their enemies, 
the grower may consider himself fortunate. In some 
cases growers plant pumpkin or squash seeds in the field 
very early in order to attract the striped beetle where 



Squashes and the Like 



413 



they may be killed, and the later frame -grown melon 
or cucumber plants are then relatively safe. 

Squashes, watermelons and cucumbers are usually 
planted in the field, although if early results are wanted 
and if the region is cold and the season short, it is well 
to start them in frames. Muskmelons are usually 
started in frames. All cucurbitous plants transplant 
with difficulty ; therefore it is advisable to plant the 
seeds on inverted sods, in pots or in small boxes. 
These methods have been described in some detail on 
pages 190 to 194. It is imperative that the plants be 
stocky and hard when taken to the field, although they 
must not be stunted. If they have been grown too 
warm and are ^^soft,'' they will be injured by the sun 
and winds when transplanted, and will be later than 
plants that are started directly in the field. 

The land should be given the best of surface tillage. 
Every effort should be made to get the plants so well 
established that the fruits begin to set before the severe 
weather of midsummer. The plants and the fruits are 
succulent and need much moisture, and if this moisture 
is lost in the spring through lack of proper preparation 
of the land and neglect of surface tillage, a good crop 
may be impossible, even though the subsequent tillage is 
perfect. The land should also contain sufficient humus 
or vegetable matter to hold a good supply of moisture. 
It is ordinarily best to have the plants so vigorous that 
several fruits set simultaneously. If one fruit sets two 
or three weeks in advance of the others, it is likely to 
consume so much of the energy of the vine that the sub- 
sequent fruits remain small. In fact, it may be well to 



414 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardeninq 

pick off the first fruit if it sets much in advance of the 
main crop. Although the land should be rich, the fer- 
tility should be available early in the season rather than 
late, else the growth may be delayed too long. Lands 
that are very rich in nitrogenous materials may cause 
the plants to grow to vine at the expense of fruit. If 
there seems to be a tendency for the plants to go to vine, 
it is a good practice to pinch off the ends of the leading 
shoots. Usually, however, this practice is not necessary 
unless the season is very short. 

Since the fruits of cucumbers are used w^hen they are 
young, the productivity of the plants may be greatly 
enhanced by picking the fruits as soon as they are fit. 
The patch should be gone over every two or three days 
at least, and if the area is large, it should be picked over 
every day. If one fruit is allowed to ripen it may pre- 
vent the setting of other fruits on the vine. If seeds of 
cucumbers are desired, it is best to reserve a few hills 
especially for that purpose. Cucumbers for the main or 
pickling crop are usually grown from seeds planted 
directly in the fields as soon as frost is past. 

CUCUMBER AND GHERKIN 

HiHs of cucumber are usually made about 4x4 or 4x5 feet 
apart; sometimes they are 4x6, for the large late varieties. At 
4x4 feet, 2,722 hills are contained on an acre. Four or five plants 
are allowed to remain in each hill. About two pounds of seeds are 
calculated to plant an acre, or 1 ounce for 70-80 hills. If the 
striped bugs are bad, plant heavily. An average acre should yield 
100 bushels for pickling. Under the best conditions, 400 and 500 
bushels of pickling cucumbers are raised to the acre. 



Cucmnber Notes 



415 



For very early, some of the small -fruited cucumbers may be 
planted, as Early Russian. For midseason and late, the White 
Spine, in various strains, is the standard. Giant Pera, Nichol 
Medium Green and Tailby are favorites. In 1889, 64 varieties 
were listed by American seedsmen. 

The cucumber is Cucumis sativus, native to southern Asia. It 
has been in cultivation from remotest times. Gherkins are very 




Fig 131, Seedlings of cucumber. Two-thirds natural size. 



small, immature cucumbers, used for pickles. The name is also 
applied to the small prickly fruits of Cucumis Angiiria, a species 
known as the West Indian or Bur cucumber. This is sometimes 
cultivated, and its fruits are used for pickles. For accessible his- 
tory of cucumber, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., Oct., 1887, pp. 
906-910. A monograph of varieties by Goff will be found in 6th 
Kept. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., pp. 230-242. The varieties were 
reduced to 26, including Cucumis Anguria. He divides them into 
two classes: young fruit green, young fruit white or greenish 
white. Waugh (Bailey, Cycle. Hort.) divides the field varieties 
into Black Spines and White Spines, and makes subdivisions 
under each. 

For enemies and diseases, consult the following, amongst 
others : 

Root and stem: Squash vine borer, N. J. Bull. 94, desc. and 
ill.; N. Y. Bull. 75, desc. and well ill, Destroy eggs, 
Jarvee and moths. 



416 The Principles of Vegetahle- Gardening 



Leaves: Flea beetle, N. Y., Bull. 113, good ill. and desc. 
Thorough spraying with Bordeaux throughout season. 
Striped beetle, N. J. Bull. 94; N. Y. Bull. 75, desc. and illus. ; 
N. Y. Bull. 158, desc. of remedies ; remedies; Ga. Bull. 
45, insects. Plant squash as a trap crop, and poison the 
beetles on the squash vines. The poison is likely to in- 
jure the vines; so plant the squashes profusely and do not 
poison all of them at once. Poison with Paris green and 
lime. Spray the cucumber vines with Bordeaux mixture. 
The hills may be covered with mosquito netting, held 
above the plants by means of hoops, until the plants begin 
to show signs of running. 
Downy mildew or blight, N. Y. Bull. 156. Ohio Bull. 105. 
Spray thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture. 



MUSKMELON 

Four by six feet is a customary distance for the hills of musk- 
melons, making 1,185 hills to the acre. The quantity of seed required 
is about the same as for cucumber. Sometimes two crops are grown 
on the same land, a very early and a main -season crop. The early 
crop is planted 4x5 feet, and two or three weeks later the main 
crop is planted between. Three or four good fruits to the plant is 
a good yield. 

American seedsmen offered 88 varieties of muskmelon in 1889. 
Leading commercial varieties at present are Rocky Ford, Osage, 
(Fig. 38), Montreal Market, Hackensack. Commercial melon- 
growing is confined to light and sandy soils. New Jersey is an 
important melon center. There are special melon centers in many 
parts of the country, even as far north as Canada. 

Ciicumis Melo, muskmelon, is native to southern Asia. It was 
grown by the ancients. It is immensely variable. The most im- 
portant types are the cantaloupes (var. Cantalupensis) , with hard 
and warty rinds, little grown in this country, although the word 
cantaloupe is much used; the nutmeg or netted type (var. reticu' 
lutus) comprising most of the American commercial varieties; 



Melons 



417 



the winter melons (var. inodorus) ripening late in the season and 
keeping well into the winter, little known m this country. Consult 
Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., Aug. 1889, pp. 671-4, for history. The 




Fig. 132. Muskmelon seedlings. Nearly natural size. 



notion that muskmelon s are contaminated by cucumbers that grow 
near them is an error. 

For melon diseases and insects, see Cucumber. For the 
anthracnose, consult Dept. Agric. Botanical Division, Bull. 8, p. 
64; Md. 1891 Rept,, p. 387. 

WATERMELON 

The first requisite in watermelon culture is a location with suf- 
ficient length of season to insure maturity of crop. 

"Rotation is all -important. In no case should melons follow 
melons the next season, and at least four years should intervene 
before the land is again planted in this crop. By that time insect 
depredators, attracted by the first melon crop, will have probably 
become exterminated and the drain from the soil of specific plant- 
food (especially potash) will also have been, to a certain extent, 
at least, made good." — Hugh N. StarneSj Bull. 38, Ga. Exp. Sta., 
on "Watermelons." 

The South Atlantic and Gulf states have occupied first place 
for size and quality of melons. Recently, the mid-continental 



AA 



418 The Principles of YegetaMe- Gardening 



states are coming to the fore. The ideal soil is light sandy loam 
with only a medium or small amount of nitrogen. Much nitrogen 
is thought to diminish the essential saccharine constituent. A 
point of special emphasis is that of thorough drainage. Swampy or 
" soggy land will not produce favorable results. In the South the 
field for melons is often plowed in the fall, to expose the soil to 
the pulverizing action of frost. Watermelons are always planted 
in hills, which are usually 10 feet apart each way. The hills are 
made at the intersection of check-rows. This "checking" is 




Fig. 133. Watermelon seedlings. One-half natural size. 



usually done with shovel- or turn -plow. The hills are made by 
mixing several shovelfuls of well -rotted manure with soil and then 
covering the whole with several inches of soft earth, into which 
the seeds are planted directly. All danger of frosts should be over 
before planting. Avoid baking or crusting of the soil on the hills, 
especially before germination of seeds. Only hand tools should 
be used in the cultivation of crop after the vines have begun to 
run, as lifting or turning the vines will injure quality and size of 
fruit. At 10x10 feet, 435 hills are contained in an acre. About 
4 pounds of seed is used to the acre. 

When is a watermelon ripe? — "Unquestionably the flat, dead 
sound emitted by a melon when * thumped^ is the readiest indi- 
cation of ripeness, and the one most universally depended on. 



Watermelon Notes 



419 



If the resonance is hollow, ringing or musical, it is a certain proof 
of immaturity. 

"Frequently on turning the melon and exposing the under 
side, the irregular white blotch formed where the melon has rested 
on the ground affords an indication of maturity. When this begins 
to turn yellowish and becomes rough, pimply or warty, with the 
surface sufficiently hard to resist the finger-nail when scratched, 
it is usually a fair sign of ripeness. 

"But there is one more test that is corroborative. After the 
melon Mooks ' ripe and 'thumps' ripe, if, on a steady pressure 
of the upper side or ' top ' by the palm of the hand, while the 
melon lies on the ground, instead of resisting solidly the interior 
appears to have a tendency to yield — a ^ givey ' sort of feeling, as 
it were — accompanied by a crisp crackling, half heard, half felt, 
as the flesh parts longitudinally in sections under the pressure., 
the melon may be pulled with absolute confidence. It is certainly 
ripe. This test should never be resorted to with melons intended 
for shipment, as their carrying quality is necessarily impaired 
thereby. 

"Yet all this, as stated, comes largely by instinct to the expert, 
and it is rarely that one finds it necessary to ' thump, ^ much less 
to * press,' a melon before deciding as to its maturity."— ^w^/? N. 
Starnes, Bull. 38, Ga. Exp. Sta. 

Fifty- eight varieties of watermelons were catalogued by North 
American seedsmen in 1889. Only a few of these are commercial 
varieties, and the kinds that are popular in the South require a too 
long season for the North. Only in favored places are watermelons 
grown in the northernmost states. They are more uncertain than 
muskmelons, because of the short and cool seasons, and are less 
grown in the North. There are a number of varieties, however, 
that ripen without difficulty in the northern states and Ontario 
when a warm soil and exposure are at hand and where small boys 
are absent. The plants may be started under glass, as advised 
on p. 413. 

The watermelon is CitruUus vulgaris, native to Africa. It has 
been in cultivation from a remote period. It is more popular in 
North America, probably, than elsewhere in the world. In fact, 



420 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



it is a feature of American liviug. The vegetable known as citron 
is only a kind of watermelon with hard, inedible flesh. The rind 
is used for preserving. The true citron of commerce is the fruit 
of a tree allied to orange and lemon. 

For insects and diseases, see Cucumber. 

PUMPKIN AND SQUASH 

When grown by themselves, pumpkins and field squashes are 
planted in hills 8 to 10 feet apart. About 3 pounds of seed is 
required for an acre with the field or running varieties. Two or 
three mature fruits to a vine is a large crop. 

The bush squashes are grown as close as 3 x4 feet in gardens, 
but the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart if possible. From 4 to 5 
pounds of seed is required to- the acre. 

In pumpkins, as the term is understood in this country, the 




Fig. 134. Seedlings of squash. Two-thirds natural size. | 

standard variety is the Connecticut Field. It is a long-running 
plant. The large orange-colored sleek furrowed fruits are used for 
pies, and to feed stock; and the small boy prizes them for "jack 
lanterns." It is commonly grown in corn-fields. This plant is a 



Pumpkins and Squushes 



421 



form of Cucurhita Pei^o, Fig. 135. The vegetable marrow, much 
prized in England, is a long-fruited form of this species. 

Of field or. winter squashes the leading types are the Hub- 
bard, Marblehead, Boston Marrow, Essex Hybrid, Turban. These 
are kept for winter. They should have a dry and fairly warm 
place (temperature above 50° ) . Where they are grown extensively, 




Fig. 135. A Pumpkin— Cucurbita Pepo. 



special stove -heated houses are built for them and they are 
stored on shelves or in shallow bins. In order to keep well, the 
fruits must be ripe, free from bruises and internal cracks, not 
frosted, and have the stem on. These squashes are Cucurhita 
maxima. 

The bush squashes are of many kinds. They are "summer 
squashes." The leading types are Crookneck, and Scallop or 
Patty- pan. These are forms of CurcurUta Pepo. 

Cucurhita Pepo and C. maxima do not cross, although the 
common notion is to the contrary. 

A third specific type is Cucurhita moschata, to which belong 



422 The Principles of Vegetable -Gardening 



the Cushaws or Winter Crooknecks, Dunkard, Tennessee Sweet 
Potato pumpkin, and some others. 

It is now believed that Cucurhita Fepo and C. maxima are 
natives of tropical America, although they are unknown anywhere 
in a truly wild state. C. moschata may be east-Asian. See Gray 
and Trumbull, Amer. Journ. Sci. 25, p. 372; Sturtevant, Amer. 
^^at., July, 1885, pp. 658-663, and Aug., 1890, pp. 727-744; Witt- 
mack, Berichte der Deutsehen Bot. GeselL, 6, p. 378. For de- 
scriptions of varieties, see Goff, 6th Rep. N. Y. State Exp. Sta., 
pp. 243-273; 55 varieties of squashes and pumpkins are described. 

For insects and diseases, see: 

Squash bug, N. J. Bull. 94; N. Y. Bull. 75, very good desc. 
and ill. ; Fla. Bull. 34. Keep fields free from rubbish. 
Trap with bits of squash leaves, etc. Examine daily. 
In early spring pick old bugs. 

Melon louse, N. Y. Bull. 75 ; N. J. Bull. 94, good, with ill. ; 
Ky. Bull. 53; Use bisulfide carbon, or hydrocyanic acid 
gas: Get at winter quarters. Check first appearance. 

Powdery mildew, Mass. State Rept. 1892, p. 225, with plate; 
Cornell Bull. 31; Cornell: ammoniacal copper carbonate. 

Downy mildew, Mass. State Rept. 1890, p. 211, with plate; 
N. Y. Bull. 119, excellent; N. Y. : Bordeaux (1 to 8 for- 
mula) once every 8 or 10 days to frost. 

OTHER CUCURBITS 

Various other cucurbitous fruits are grown for eating. Of 
late years, Benincasa cerifera^ the wax gourd of the Orient, has 
been introduced as the Chinese preserving melon. It is used for 
the making of preserves and sweet pickles. The fruit is the size 
of a watermelon, hairy, and usually having a waxy covering. 
Cultivation as for muskmelon. See Cornell Bull. 67. 

The Dish-Cloth gourds or Vegetable Sponges, two species of 
Luffa, are in cultivation as curiosities and for the fibrous interior, 
which is used, when dried and macerated, as a sponge. The 
young fruit may be eaten when cooked or dried, but it is scarcely 
known as a kitchen -garden product in this country. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



SWEET CORN. 0KB A, MABTYNIA 

The plants mentioned above are all tvarm- weather 
crops ; they are annuals^ or grown as such, and they are 
cultivated for their immature fruits ; they should have 
quick soil ; usually they are not transplanted ; other thayi 
good tillage, no special treatment is required. 

Corn, okra and martynia are culturally somewhat 
related, but they have little else in common. They are 
placed together here because none of them fits well into 
the other groups. 

SWEET CORN 

As a garden or horticultural crop, sweet corn or 
sugar corn is the only kind of corn that need be con- 
sidered here. It is grown for the immature ears, which 
are eaten when the grains are yet soft. Although prac- 
tically unknown in other parts of the world, it is a 
very important product in North America. Its import- 
ance has greatly increased in recent years because it is 
extensively canned. It is now one of the most important 
of horticultural field crops in many parts of the country. 
Sweet corn is not grown in the southern states; or if it 
is, the seed is renewed every year from the North. It 
holds its peculiar attributes only in the short, sharp 
seasons of the northern states and parts of Canada. 

(423) 



424 The Principles of Vegetable - Gardening 

The cultivation of sweet corn is not unlike that of 
field corn, with the exception that greater attention is 
paid to earliness and to the development cff. each indi- 
vidual plant. It is therefore given, if possible, an 
earlier and warmer soil, with quickly available fertil- 
izers, and it is usually grown in hills rather than in 




Fig. 136. Sweet com seedlings. Nearly natural size. 



continuous drills. The idea is to secure as many ears 
as possible, and therefore each stalk should be given an 
abundance of room. In field corn, on the contrary, 
particularly since the advent of the silo, the fodder may 
be quite as important as the grain. If the season is 
short and the soil is hard and backward, it is well to add 
a little commercial fertilizer to each hill in order to start 
the plants off quickly. Seed is planted for the early 
crop as soon as the ground is thoroughly warm. Since 



Sweet Corn 



425 



sweet corn seed is particularly liable to rot in cold and 
damp ground, it is well to make the first planting rather 
heavy. It is never transplanted. The early plantings 
are usually made of the . extra -early 
varieties, as the Early Minnesota, Early 
Vermont and others. The main crop is 
usually secured from the later or main- 
season varieties, of which the Stow^ell 
Evergreen is the standard. Succes- 
sional plantings maj' be made at inter- 
vals of one to two weeks, particularly 
for the home garden or for a contin- 
uous supply for the market -garden. In 
market - gardening, the value of the 
green -corn crop is often determined by 
its earliness. Two or three days in time 
of ripening may make a difference be- 
tween the profitable and unprofitable 
crop, particularly when one is under 
strong competition with neighboring 
gardeners. In such cases the grower 
secures the early crop by means of the 
very earliest varieties and particularly 
by having quick and well-prepared land 
to which only quickl}^ available fertilizers have been 
added. If the land is inclined to be hard and rough, 
it is well to turn it up loose in the fall. 

Although corn is a hot- weather plant and thrives in 
the fullest exposure to sunlight, it nevertheless is not 
able to withstand drought as well as potatoes and many 
other crops. This is because it is relatively a surface 




Fig. 137. Plant of 
sweet corn. 



426 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

feeder. Every effort should be made, therefore, to pre- 
serve the moisture in the soil. The moisture content 
is increased by deep preparation of the land and by 
the incorporation of vegetable matter. Thereafter the 
moisture is saved by frequent light surface tillage. 

In the general market, corn is nearly always retailed 
by the dozen ears, the price ranging from 25 cents a 
dozen early in the season down to 10 and even 5 cents 
when the main supply comes in. As a field crop for the 
canning factories, the ears are ordinarily sold by the 
ton, 8 to 12 dollars being an average price for that quan- 
tity after all small and imperfect ears are discarded and 
some allowance is made for extra husks. The ears of 
the second setting will develop better if those of the first 
setting are picked just as soon as they are fit for use. 

Rows of corn are made at 3-4 feet apart. In the row the hills 
(of 3-5 stalks each) are planted at 2X~3 feet apart, or single ker- 
nels may be dropped every ten to twelve inches. At 2X~3 feet 
apart, the crop may be tilled in both directions. When the corn 
is small, the ground may be harrowed without destroying the 
plants. In hills, one peek to the acre is required for planting. 
8,000 to 10,000 ears should be secured from an acre. 

Sweet corn is a race or variety of common Indian corn, or Zea 
Mays, one of the grass family, and a native of America, although 
the wild type is unknown. For a general botanical and horticul- 
tural account of corn, see "Varieties of Corn,^^ Bull. 57, Oflfice of 
Exp. Stations (U. S. Dept. Agric), by the late E. L. Sturtevant 
(1899). For history of sweet corn, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., 
July 1885, pp. 664-5. In 1889, American seedsmen listed 76 varie- 
ties of sweet corn and 22 varieties of pop corn. 

For insects and diseases, see, amongst others, the following: 

Wire-worms, Cornell Bull. 107, desc. and ill. Fall cultivation. 
Short rotation, including thorough cultivation in fall. 



Okra 



427 



Cut- worms, Cornell Bull. 104, desc. and ill. 

Chinch-bug, Ky. Bull. 74, dese. and ill.; N. Y. Kept. 15, 
pp. 531-33, desc; Ohio Bull. 69, dese. and ill., very 
good ; Ohio: Ditching, plowing, harrowing, etc. Natural 
checks, rain and fungi. 

Cornstalk disease. Neb. Bull. 52. 

OKRA OR GUMBO 

Okra is a hot-weather perennial, but is cultivated as 
an annual, the seeds being sown each spring. It is gen- 
erally grown in the southern states, where its partially 
matured pods are in much demand for soups and stews. 
These pods must be cut when still tender and pulpy, be- 
fore they have developed strings or woody fiber. Pods 




Fig. 138. Okra seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



are also canned and dried for subsequent use. Okra is 
grown in essentially the same way as corn. The seeds are 
sown where the plants are to stand, as the young plants 
do not transplant with ease. In the Northern states, 
however, the plants are sometimes started in pots, boxes 



428 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

or on inverted sods in frames. Okra is a large -growing 
plant and the rows should be from 3 to 4, or even 5, feet 
apart for the larger varieties. In the row the plants 
should stand from 1 to 3 feet. In the northern states, 
certain dwarf and early- maturing varieties are usually 
grown, and these may stand as close as 1 foot apart in 
the row. 

Hibisctts esculentus, the okra, is native to tropical 
Asia. It is one of the Mallow family, and is therefore 
allied to hollyhock and cotton. It is now widely grown 
in tropical countries. For history, see Sturtevant, Amer. 
Nat., Jan., 1890, pp. 33-35. There are no very im- 
portant insects or diseases. There are few varieties, 
only 11 being offered in North America in 1889. 

MARTYNIA 

Martynia is growm for the half-matured seed-pods, 
which are used for pickles. The plant requires a warm 
soil and exposure. Give much room, for a good plant 
will spread over an area 3 or 4 feet across. It is a nearly 
prostrate plant, with very large, hairy leaves, odd showy 
flowers, and long-beaked hairy pods. It demands no 
special treatment. Seeds may be started in frames or 
planted in the open as soon as warm weather comes. 

Two or three confused species are in cultivation, but 
the commonest one is Martynia proboscidea, native from 
southern Indiana to Iowa and southward. Others are 
tropical. They are annuals. They are members of the 
PedaliacecB, a small family allied to the Bignonia family. 
See historical note by Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., Aug., 
1889, p. 670. 



CHAPTER XIX 



CONDIMENTAL AND SWEET REBBS 

Although there is little desire on the part of Ameri- 
cans for condimental and flavoring herbs, nevertheless 
every complete home garden should have a small area 
set aside for the cultivation of at least a half dozen of 
the leading kinds. What are commonly known as 
herbs in the trade comprise a great variety of plants. 
Some of them are grown for medicinal purposes, some 
for flavoring, some for the decoration of culinary dishes 
and others for salads and minor home uses. What are 
commonly known as "the sweet herbs,'' however, are 
such plants as are used as an incident to cookery. Of 
these the most popular in America is sage. 

Nearly all the sweet herbs are of the easiest culti- 
vation. They thrive in any loose, warm and open soil. 
Although the growth is usually most profuse in rather 
heavy and moist soils, it is believed that the aromatic 
qualities, for which they are particularly esteemed, are 
more pronounced in soils in which the plants do not 
make an exuberant growth. The land should always 
be rich enough, however, to produce a full development 
of the plant. 

The sweet herbs are of two general classes as respects 
the general methods of cultivation: the annuals, or those 
that must be resown every year; and the perennials, or 

(429) 



430 The Principles of Vegetable- Oar dening 

those that persist for a number of years. It is well to 
grow all the sweet herbs together on one side of the gar- 
den, whether they are annual or perennial. It is advis- 
able to devote a strip of land to this purpose and to grow 
a clump of a particular herb each year in its accustomed 
place. Even the perennial species, as sage and hyssop, 
should be resown or replanted frequently in order to keep 
the plants in vigorous condition, particularly if the cli- 
mate is severe and if the plants are not given some win- 
ter protection. The grower may readily save his own 
seed by cutting off a few plants when the seeds are 
nearly ready to be shed and hanging the plants in a dry, 
cool place, as in a barn. 

The strongest -growing perennial species may be 
propagated easily by division of the roots. When the 
clump begins to fail, it is well to dig it up and discard 
all the older parts of the roots and to replant the 
younger and more vigorous parts. When such species 
are grown from seed, they are usually not strong enough 
to supply a heavy product until the second year, 
although some of them may give a cutting the first fall 
if they are started early and if the soil is good. Ordi- 
narily a space 4 feet square will contain enough of any 
herb to supply a family, although twice that area may 
be desired for such popular species as sage, caraway and 
spearmint. A strip 3 or 4 feet wide along one side of a 
garden can be made a collecting -place for these herbs; 
and the place will have more than a commercial or 
culinary interest. 

Some of the sweet herbs are prized for foliage, and 
others for seeds or fruits. In fact, the species to which 



Sweet Herbs 



431 



the name sweet herb should be more particularly re- 
stricted, are those that have aromatic foliage. Of such 
are sage, hyssop, thyme, mints, tansy, horehound. 
Most of these plants are members of the mint family, 
or Labiatae, although some of them, as tansy and worm- 
wood, are members of the sunflower family. Those 
species of which the seeds are used are mostly members 
of the parsley family, or UmbelliferaB. Of such are cara- 
way, coriander and dill. The larger number of these 
seed -bearing plants are annual. The plants that are 
grown for herbage are usually cut when the plant is in 
full growth and before it has become woody. The stems 
are cut off near the ground and are then tied together in 
bundles and hung in a dry, cool place, as an attic. The 
dried herbage is then in condition for use during the 
winter. Continual cuttings of the young herbage may 
also be made during the season for current uses. It is 
evident that if the plants are cut severely and continu- 
ously they will be weakened, and that it may be neces- 
sary to raise a fresh stock to take their places. The 
species that are grown for seeds are allowed to ripen 
before the product is gathered. The plants are usually 
cut or pulled just before the seeds are ready to fall. 
The plants are then dried under cover and the seeds are 
threshed out. Seeds of the seed-bearing herbs and 
dried herbage of the true sweet herbs are usually to be 
had at drug stores, but there is much satisfaction in 
growing one's own. Sometimes there is a fair market 
for home-grown herbs. 

The following lists contain the leading species of 
sweet and culinary herbs cultivated in this country. 



I 



432 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



arranged with reference to their duration. (Many 
other plants of minor importance might be included: 



Annual or grown as such 

anise , caraway ( biennial ) , 

sweet basil, clary (biennial), 

summer savory, dill (biennial), 



coriander, 



sweet marjoram (biennial 
or perennial) . 



Perennial 



sage, 

lavender, 

peppermint, 

spearmint, 

hyssop, 

thj^me, 

marjoram, 

balm, 

catnip, 

pennyroyal. 



rosemary, 
horehound, 
fennel, 
lovage, 

winter savory, 
tansy, 
wormwood, 
costmary, 
tarragon . 



CHAPTER XX 



PERENNIAL CROPS 



Asparagus, 
Rhubarb, 
Dock, 
Sorrel, 



Artichoke, 
Sea-Kale. 



The management of perennial crops diifers from 
that of other vegetable -gardening crops, in the fact that 
tJiey are more or less permanent occupants of the ground, 
and therefore must he given an area to themselves where 
they will not interfere ivith the customary plowing and 
tilling; in the fact that the chief tillage and care are 
required early and late in the season; and also because 
the fertilizing is secured chiefly by surface dressings in 
spring and fall. It seems to be advisable, therefore, 
for cultural reasons, to place these vegetables in a 
group by themselves, although otherwise they have 
little in common. All cultural classifications are more 
or less arbitrary. 



A deep, rich, fertile, moist, cool soil, a warm exposure, 
thorough preparation of the land, heavy manuring, 
thorough tillage in late fall and early spring, are general 
requisites of asparagus culture. The plants should he 
allowed to become well established before a crop is cut, ayid 



ASPARAGUS 



BB 



(433) 



434 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

the cutting of the plants should cease in early summer in 
order to allow them opportunity to grow and to store up 
energy for the following year. The tops are mown in 
late fall, and the land is top-dressed ivith mamire before 
ivinter sets hi. Asparagus is groivn for its young shoots, 
and the quality is determined by the succulence of these 
shoots, A good plantation should last twenty years and 
more, at least in the North. Propagated by seed. 

Asparagus is a gross feeder. Land can scarcely be 
too rich. If the land is originally hard and coarse, it 
should be prepared a year or two in advance by the 
raising of some thoroughly tilled crop, as potatoes, and 
with this crop as much manure as possible should have 
been used. The asparagus plantation should be made 
for a lifetime. Therefore it is well to give careful 
attention to the selection of the soil and to the choice of 
a place that can be permanently set aside for the pur- 
pose. In the home garden, asparagus should be in rows 
at one side of the plantation, so that it will not interfere 
with the plowing of the garden area. It usually looks 
best at the farther side of the garden, where its beauti- 
ful herbage makes a background border in summer and 
fall. The old idea was to have asparagus beds.^' The 
new idea is to plant asparagus in rows as one would 
plant rhubarb or corn, and to till it with horse tools 
rather than with hoes and finger weeders. For the 
ordinary family, one row alongside the garden, 75 to 
100 feet long, may be expected to furnish a sufiicient 
supply. As a field crop, it is ordinarily grown in the 
best and richest soil available. The permanency of the 
plantation will depend largely on the original quality of 



Asparagus 



435 



the land, the preparation of the soil, the method of plant- 
ing, and particularly on the subsequent care and fertil- 
izing of the plantation. Aim to secure large, broad 
crowns. 

The roots of asparagus should be in moist, cool soil. 
They should have opportunity to forage as far as they 



will. The roots run horizontally rather than perpen- 
dicularly. It is well, therefore, to place the rows not 
closer than 4 feet. The plants should be set deep. The 
custom is to subsoil the land, if it is hard beneath the 
surface, plowing in a heavy coating of well -rotted 
manure if necessary. The plants are then set in fur- 
rows 6 to 10 inches deep. The crown of the plant is 
covered with loose earth or old compost to the depth of 
2 or 3 inches. As the plants grow, the trench is 




Fig. 139. Seedlings of asparagus. Natural size. 



436 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

gradually filled. If tlie trench is filled at first, the 
young plants may not have strength enough to push 
through the earth. In a commercial plantation, this 
filling may be done by the subsequent tillage. Some- 
times the furrows are partially filled by running a light 
harrow over the ground. The plants are usually set in 
spring, and by the succeeding fall the furrows should 
have been filled. The plants should be set about 3 feet 
apart in the row. They should be one-year-old seed- 
lings. Two or three -year -old plants usually give less 
satisfactory results. 

Since the crowns of asparagus are so far beneath the 
surface, it is possible to till the whole area with shallow- 
working tools late in fall or early in spring. It is essen- 
tial that this general tillage be given in order to keep the 
plantation free of weeds and to maintain the physical 
texture of the soil. During the growing season, little 
tillage can be given. When the crop is being harvested, 
it is not practicable to till to any extent ; and later in 
the season when the tops are allowed to grow, the whole 
surface is occupied. It is well to dress the plantation 
heavily in the fall with manure, to which one may add 
night soil, refuse salt or animal fertilizer, if these are 
available. It may be well, also, to make another dress- 
ing of more quickly available fertilizer early in the 
spring. It is very important that the plantation be 
given the best of surface tillage for the first one or two 
5''ears in order to get it into ideal condition. When the 
bed finally comes into full bearing, the asparagus appro- 
priates so much of the plant-food and moisture that 
there is less danger from pernicious weeds. 



Asparagus 



437 



' The plants should grow two full years before shoots 
are cut. Sometimes a few stalks may be taken the sec- 
ond year, but it is usually better to wait until the third 
year and to allow the plants to become thoroughly estab- 
lished. It is also easy to injure the bed by cutting it for 
too long a period each season. Whilst the crop is being 
harvested, however, every stalk should be removed, even 
though it is too small and poor for eating: the bed 
should be ^^cut clean. Only in rare cases should the 
bed be cut after the 4th of July, and it is usually better 
to stop before this time. Thereafter the tops are allowed 
to grow as they will. It should be remembered that the 
energy of the crown and roots is supplied from the foli- 
age that developed in the previous summer. Without a 
heavy growth of top, one cannot expect a good growth 
of roots and a heavy crop the following year. The tops 
should be mown late in fall. Some persons allow these 
tops to lie on the ground as a winter protection. If, 
however, the plants produce many berries, there will be 
so many seedling plants as to make trouble; in that case, 
it is better to burn the tops. It is also well to remove and 
burn them in order to allow a thorough tillage to be given 
in the fall. The bed should then be given a dressing as 
already advised, both for the purpose of affording winter 
protection and to supply plant -food. In the spring the 
dressing may be cultivated under, or if it is too coarse 
for that purpose, the rougher parts may be forked off. 
After a thorough spring cultivation, it is well to again 
cover the bed with litter or manure in order to afford 
some nourishment, but particularly to conserve the moist- 
ure and to afford material for covering the tender shoots 



I 



4:38 The Principles of Vegetable- Oarden lug 

in case there is danger of frost. The value of asparagus 
lies in its succulence and tenderness, and these qualities 
are usually associated with large size of shoot. These 
attributes are secured by very rich soil and by thorough 
attention to good tillage. 

It is customary to harvest asparagus by cutting off 
the shoots 3 or 4 inches beneath the surface by means 
of a long knife. There are special asparagus knives 
(Fig. 140), but any long butcher-knife will answer the 
purpose. It is important that this knife be inserted in 
an oblique direction so as not to injure the new shoots 
which are rising from the crown. A little experience in 
the use of the knife will enable one to cut the shoots 
without injury to the succeeding picking. Some of the 
best growers now advise the breaking of the asparagus 
shoots rather than cutting them. There is then no dan- 
ger of injuring the crown, and the shoot will not break 
in the tough and stringy part and therefore the product 
is sure to be tender and crisp. This is no doubt the 
ideal method, but the formal demands of the market 
make it difficult to sell broken asparagus in some places, 
notwithstanding its better quality. 

In this country asparagus is chiefly used in its green 
or unblanched state. There is a common notion that 
asparagus with white stalks is the tenderest and best, 
but this is an error unless the stalks are artificially 
blanched. When grown without blanching, the green 
part of the shoot is the best. Asparagus is often 
blanched in the field. This is done by hilling up the | 
rows early in spring by means of the furrowing plow, 
much as one would hill celery. If asparagus is to be 



Asparagus 



439 




grown for blanching, it should be planted somewhat 
deeper than under ordinary conditions. Blanched as- 
paragus is more popular in the Old World than here. 

Asparagus is sold in bunches 4 or 5 inches in diam- 
eter. These are tied with soft cord or raffia, 
although some growers now use rubber bands. 
Usually the market requires that the butt end 
of the bunch be cut of£ 
square. An average bunch 
is 7 to 9 inches long. 
Asparagus bunchers " — 
w^hich are forms for hold- 
ing the bunch and cord, and 
a knife for cutting the butts 
— can be had of dealers in 
gardeners^ supplies. Pig. 
140. 

One can buy asparagus plants of seedsmen. It is 
usually better, however, to grow one's own plants, par- 
ticularly if he has a rich piece of land and can give it 
careful attention. The seed is sown in drills from a foot 
to 18 inches apart and it is covered about an inch in 
depth. The seeds may be soaked in warm water a day 
before planting. The plants should be thinned to stand 
3 or 4 inches apart in the row. Give frequent tillage 
throughout the season. The following spring these 
plants will be ready for setting in their permanent 
places. Seedlings may be expected to vary consid- 
erably. 



Fig. 140. Asparagus buncher; also 
knife or spud for cutting the 
plants in the field. 



At 3x4 feet, 3,630 plants are required for an acre. These 
plants should be secured from 1 pound of good seed, although 4-5 



440 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 



pounds is often recommended. About 400 dozen bunches is a fair 
yield per acre. 

There are few varieties. Only nine were listed by American 
seedsmen in 1889. Conover Colossal is the leading kind. 

Asparagus has been cultivated for 2,000 years or more. It is 
native to temperate Europe and Asia. It is one of the lily family, 
and it has several allies in cultivation in greenhouses for the 
graceful foliage. These greenhouse species are climbing or 
drooping. Asparagus is known to botanists as Asparagus officinalis. 
For an accessible history, see Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., Feb., 1887, 
pp. 129-131. 

" If I can have a trusty hand to do the gathering, I do not 
allow a knife to be taken into the field. The gatherer takes two 
rows at a time, breaking off the shoots just beneath the ground, at 
the lowest point where they will snap squarely off. In the grow- 
ing season the field is gone over every day. Asparagus should be 
sold by weight, like lettuce and pie plant; but, unfortunately, our 
retailers have not as yet taken this progressive step, and we have 
asparagus, not only of all grades of quality in the market, but 
bunches of all lengths and sizes. Since I have used rubber elas- 
tics instead of string or bark for tying, the process of bunch- 
ing has been greatly abridged. Five dozen bunches can be put 
together in an hour by an expert hand and neatly squared at the 
ends. 

" It is a custom among many of our gardeners, by the use of 
the knife, to give their bunches the required length by cutting far 
beneath the surface, lowering the quality of their product and 
demoralizing the market. By following my method of breaking the 
stems, there is no waste and the quality of the lower part of the 
stems is as excellent as any part of them. The doing away with 
the necessity of careful rules for cutting asparagus and the forms 
of implements best fitted for the purpose, the simplifying of the 
tying process, and the elimination of a large proportion of the 
expense in preparing the field, are decidedly important steps in 
progressive asparagus culture."— C/i as. W. Garfield before Mich. 
Hort. Soc, July, 1889. 

The leading insects and diseases are discussed in the following ; 



Asparagus — Rhubarb 



441 



Beetle, N. Y. Bull. 75, p. 425, good plate ; Dept. Agric. Yearb. 
. 1896, p. 342, good ills. ; N. J. Kept. 1898, p. 457. Destroy 
all volunteer asparagus. In beds being cut, leave small trap- 
shoots ; twice a week cut these and destroy. In young beds 
treat with fresh air-slaked lime as soon as larvae appear; 
application while yet damp ; thoroughness. In hot weather 
brush off and insects are baked on soil. In rare eases, Paris 
green or London purple, 1 lb. to 50 lbs. of dry hydrated or 
air-slaked lime; second application a week later; be very 
careful with poisons in patches from which asparagus is to 
be used. 

Rust, N. J. Rept. 1896, p. 407; Farmers' Bull. No. 61, p. 30; 
Ct. 20th Rept., p. 281 and plates. Mass. Bull. 61: Iowa 
Bull. 53. The cutting, careful collection and immediate 
burning, not only of all visibly affected stalks but of all 
asparagus brush, both cultivated and wild, early in the 
autumn. Exercise every effort to secure vigorous plants, 
and in very dry seasons practice irrigation if possible. 

RHUBARB OR PIE PLANT 

Rhubarb delights in a deep rich soil. Since its value 
depends on the succulence and size of the leaf-stalks, every 
care must be given that will contribute to leaf groivth. It 
is an early spring crop; the land, therefore, should be 
qiiicJc, and the plants should have made a sturdy growth 
the previous year in order to have energy to start quickly 
and vigorously. A tv ell -prepared and ivell-handled rhic- 
barb plantation should last twenty years or more. Pro- 
pagated by divisions of the root or by seed. 

Rhubarb is one of the most popular of all perennial 
vegetable -garden plants. It is prized for its large, thick, 
juicy acid leaf-stalks, which are used in early spring for 
sauces and pies. The size of the stalks depends partly 



442 The Principles of Vegetable- Oardewing 



on the variety, but particularly on the soil and the tillage. 
There are only three or four popular varieties, of which 
the best known are Victoria, Linnaeus, and Mammoth 
Red; but the old-fashioned rhubarb will often produce 
a better leaf -stalk when given high cultivation than the 
best strain of Victoria will when grown under neglect. 
The rhubarb is not particular as to soil, but it thrives 
best in land that is mellow and fertile to a considerable 




Fig. 141. Rhubarb seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



depth. Soils that have a high subsoil or hard-pan are 
to be avoided. The rhubarb plantation should last for 
a number of years, and it is therefore important that 
the original preparation of the land should be of the 
best. Land should be heavily fertilized. There is little 
danger of adding too much stable manure-, particularly 
if the soil is either very hard or very loose. If the land 
is not in good tilth, it is best to grow a preparatory 
crop, as potatoes or some root crop, and to use lib- 
erally^ of stable manure in that year. If the land is 



Rhubarb 



443 



not naturally deep, it is well to subsoil it just before the 
rhubarb is planted. The rows should be far enough 
apart to allow of easy horse tillage, — not less than four 
feet for the strong -growing varieties. Fig. 142. In the 
row the plants may be placed from 3 to 4 feet apart. Good 
surface tillage, as for corn or potatoes, is all that is de- 
manded. In the fall the bed should be given a heavy 




Fig. 142. A Long Island rhubarb field in early spring, before harvest 

has begun. 



dressing of stable manure. This dressing serves the 
purposes of enriching the soil, of preserving the texture 
of the surface, and of affording a winter mulch and 
protection. Lands that are heavily mulched do not 
freeze so deep as those that are left bare, and the plants 
are likely to start earlier in the spring. This surface 
mulch may be removed early in the spring and a thor- 
ough cultivation given to the land; or if the land is in 
good tilth and free from weeds, it may be forked from 



444 The Principles of Vegetable- Gardening 

the crowns and allowed to lie between the rows until the 
crop is harvested. Some growers hill up the rows in fall 
by means of a plow and do not apply a fall mulch. 

The commercial rhubarb season is short. It rarely 
extends over more than two months. The leaves are 
pulled, and they separate readily at their insertion. 
Only the largest and best leaves are harvested. Others 
are usually allowed to remain unless they are very nu- 
merous, in which case the larger part of them are pulled 
off in order to allow the strength to go to the main ones. 
After the market season of rhubarb is past, the plants 
are allowed to grow as they will except that the seed- 
stalks are cut off as fast as they arise in order to force 
the energy of the plant into the production of foliage 
and roots. A heavy crop of rhubarb in any year de- 
pends to a large extent on the strong leaf -growth of 
the year before. In order to renew rhubarb plantations, 
the roots are sometimes taken up and reset; but it is 
usually a better practice to trim the roots with the plow 
or the spade, breaking off the strong projecting parts. 

Ordinarily, rhubarb is propagated by means of divi- 
sion of the roots. The root may be cut into as many 
pieces as there are strong eyes, and as much as possible 
of the root is allowed to remain w^ith each eye. These 
pieces are planted 3 or 4 inches deep. The plants should 
grow two years before a cutting is made, and they will 
not give a full crop until the third year. Rhubarb is 
readily grown from seeds, but this requires a year's more 
time and the seedlings are likely to vary to some extent. 
The seeds may be sown early in the spring in drills 18 
inches apart, or closer if the land is valuable, and the 



Rhubarb — Docks 



445 



young plants are thinned to 6 to 8 inches apart in the 
row. The plants are set in permanent positions the year 
following, that is, when they are one year old. In the 
Northern states rhubarb is nearly always planted in the 
spring whether from seedlings or root -cuttings, but in 
milder climates it may be planted in the fall. 

An acre of rhubarb requires about as much seed as an acre 
of asparagus. The number of seeds in an ounce is about the 
same as in asparagus. It is a good plan to leave alleys at inter- 
vals in a rhubarb field to allow the entrance of wagons. From 
2 to 5 stalks are tied in a bunch for market, and an acre should 
produce 3,000 dozen bunches. In 1889, North American seeds- 
men offered six varieties of rhubarb. Sometimes used for wine. 

Rhubarb {EJieum Bliaponticum) is one of the PolygonaceaB or 
buckwheat family. It is native to eastern Asia. For historical 
sketch by Sturtevant, see Amer. Nat., April, 1890, pp. 328-332. 

There are no troublesome insects or diseases. 

For special literature, consult Thompson's Rhubarb Culture." 

DOCKS AND SORRELS 

"Various species of docks and sorrels have long been 
cultivated as pot-herbs. Some of them are very de- 
sirable additions to the garden because they yield 
a pleasant food in very early spring, and, once 
planted, they remain for years. We have grown two 
of the French docks for years and find them to be very 
good. One is the Spinage Dock {Oseille Epinard) , the 
other the Large Belleville {Oseille Large cle Belleville). 
The former is the better of the two, perhaps, and it has 
the advantage of being a week or ten days earlier. The 
broad crisp leaves appear early in April when there is 



446 Tlie Principles of Vegetable - Gardenijig 

nothing green to be had in the open garden, and the}' 
can be cut continuously for a month or more. This 
dock is the Herb Patience, or Eumex Patientia of the 
botanies. It has long been an inhabitant of gardens, 
and it has sparingly run wild in some parts of this 
country. It is a native of Europe. The Belleville is 
also a European plant, and is really a sorrel. It is 
Biimex Acetosa of botanists. It has also become spon- 
taneous in some of the eastern parts of the country. 
It has thinner, lighter green and longer -stalked leaves 
than the spin age dock, with spear -like lobes at the base. 
The leaves are very sour, and will probably not prove to 
be so generally agreeable as those of the spinage dock; 
but they are later, and afford a succession. In some 
countries this sorrel yields oxalic acid sufficient for com- 
mercial purposes. The Round -leaved or true French 
sorrel {Rumex scutatus) would probablj' be preferable to 
most persons. 

^^All these docks are hardy perennials, and are very 
acceptable plants to those who are fond of early 
'greens.' Some, at least, of the cultivated docks can 
be procured of American seedsmen.'' — Bull. 61, Cornell 
Exp, Sta. 

ARTICHOKE 

Two very unlike plants are known as artichoke. The 
one commonly known under that name in this country 
is the plant known abroad as Jerusalem artichoke. It is 
one of the sunflower tribe and is grown for its thick, 
potato -like, underground tubers. The other, or the true 
artichoke, is a plant allied to cardoon and thistles, and 



Jerusalem Artichoke 447 

the edible part is the large unopened flower -head; the 
young shoots are also sometimes blanched and eaten 
as salads. It is often known as the globe or bur arti- 
choke. 

The Jerusalem artichoke is little prized in this 
country as a garden vegetable, although it is so exceed- 
ingly productive and thrives under such adverse condi- 
tions thiat it might be made to supply a considerable 




Fig. 143. Grlobe artichoke seedlings. Two-thirds natural size. 



amount of food. The tubers may be eaten raw or 
cooked. It has a tendency to become a weed in waste 
places, spreading inveterately by means of its long un- 
derground, tuber -bearing stems. In poorly cultivated 
lands, the plant is likely to spread rather than to 
diminish because the tubers are severed and transported 
by the cultivator, if the plant becomes a weed, it may 
be eradicated by thorough tillage, by means of which 
the tops do not have an opportunity to grow. If the 
field is plowed in the fall, many of the roots will be 
exposed and they may be picked out. In fact, this is 
one of the best means of harvesting the crop. Swine 



448 The Principles of Vegetable- Garde^img 

are very fond of the artichoke, and if they are turned 
into the field they will soon destroy the plant, if it 
becomes weedy. As a cultivated crop, the artichoke is 
nearly always placed in some remote or little used 
corner, in order that it may not encroach on the culti- 
vated areas. When once planted, it will take care of 
itself; but it will produce more freely of tubers if the 
roots are broken and divided now and then, as they are 
by the customary digging of the tubers. The plant is 
perfectly hardy. It is native to the northern parts of 
the United States and parts of Canada. It was cul- 
tivated by the Indians (see Gray & Trumbull, Amer. 
Journ. Sci. 25, p. 244). In the Old World the plant 
seems to be more prized than here as a garden crop, and 
there are improved strains of it. In this country there 
are no named varieties that are generally known. The 
plant belongs to the sunflower genus, being known to 
botanists as Relianthus tuberosiis. 

The true or globe artichoke is a strong -growing, up- 
right perennial, with large woolly divided leaves. The 
plants grow 4 or 5 feet high. They should be planted 
3 to 5 feet apart each way. The plants are propagated 
either by seeds or by suckers from the root. The seeds 
do not reproduce the variety, however, and are therefore 
not to be recommended if one desires the best strains. 
Seeds may be sown where the plants are to stand, and the 
second year the plants may be expected to produce edi- 
ble heads. Seedlings started early in a hotbed may give 
edible heads the same year, but they must be transplanted 
with much care. Suckers are freely produced about the 
crown of the plant, and these are chiefly used in the Old 



Artichoke — Sea- Kale 



449 



World for the propagation of the variety. The suckers 
are usually planted directly where the plants are to ma- 
ture, and in the second year the heads may be gathered. 
Usually the plant begins to decline after it has borne two 
or three heavy crops. It is therefore advisable to re- 
plant it frequently. In cold climates the crowns should 
be well protected in winter with straw or litter. The 
edible parts of the flower-head are the fleshy portion on 
the inside of the large outer scales and the bottom'^ or 
receptacle of the head. The heads are 
gathered before the blue flowers begin to 
show, that is, when the head is in the 
bud. Fig. 14i. As soon as the head 
begins to expand, it is too old and 
woody for eating. In this country the 
artichoke is little prized, bat it is much 
used in parts of Europe. The plant is 
quite worth the growing as an orna- 
mental subject. 

Cynara Scolymiis, the artichoke, is 
native to the Mediterranean region. See 
Sturtevant, Amer. Nat., Feb., 1887, p. 125. For notes on 
culture and methods of cooking, see Circular 22, Division 
of Botany, U. S. Dept. Agric. (1899). 




Fig. 144. Globe arti- 
chokes. One-fonrth 
natural size. 



SEA -KALE 

Sea-kale is a low, fleshy-stemmed perennial, the 
young leaves and shoots of which are blanched and 
eaten. In the kitchen, it is prepared after the manner 
of asparagus. The plant is little known in this country. 



CC 



450 The Principles, of Vegetable- Gardening 



although it is deserving of popularity. After the plants 
are well established, the young shoots are blanched by 
covering the crown to the depth of a foot or more 
with loose, fine earth in early spring. Sometimes 
the shoots are allowed to grow upward into a dark 
receptacle, as into a box inverted over the crown. After 
the early spring shoots are removed, the plant is allowed 
to grow as it will for the remainder of the season for, as 
in asparagus and rhubarb, the vigor of the young shoots 
of any season depend, to a large extent, on the vigor 
and energy of ihe plant in the preceding j^ear. The 
soil should be deep and rich, and rather moist. 

Sea-kale is propagated either by seeds or divisions 
of the roots. In either case, the crop is not to be har- 
vested until the plants have grown two or three years. 
If the root divisions are large and the soil is strong, 
some shoots may be cut the following year, but it is 
better to allow them two seasons' growth. The plants 
should not be less than 3 feet apart each way, and if the 
Land is not too valuable, they may stand as far apart as 
3% or even 4 feet. The seeds'' are really fruits. They 
are ordinarily sown without being shelled. Two or 
more plants are likely to come from each of these fruits, 
all but one of which should be removed. Sea -kale will 
retain its vigor for a number of years, but if the plants 
begin to show signs of decline, a new crop should be 
started. It is much benefited by an autumn dressing 
of straw or light manure. 

Sea -Kale is Cranibe maritima, one of the CruciferaB 
or Mustard family. It is native to sea -coast regions of 
Western Europe. Sturtevant has an historical note in 
Amer. Nat., July, 1890, pp. 644-5. | 



INDEX 



Alabama, trucking in, 8, 10. 

Allium Ascalonicum, 240, 316. 
Allium Cepa, 240, 316. 
Allium fistulosum, 240, 316. 
Allium Porrum, 240, 316. 
Allium sativum, 240, 316. 
Allium Sclioenoprasum, 240, 315. 
American Agriculturist, quoted, 36. 
Anderson, book by, 245. 
Anise, 432. 

Apium graveolens, 241, 378. 
Arkansas, trucking in, 10. 
Arlie, book by, 245, 328. 
Arsenite of lime, 209. 
Arthur, on potatoes, 304. 
Artichoke, 242, 446; longevity of seeds;, 
135. 

Asparagus, 242, 433; acreage, 13; lon- 
gevity of seeds, 135. 
Asparagus oflS.cinalis, 242, 440. 
Atriplex hortensis, 241. 

Bailey, books by, 46, 2±5. 

Bailey, on beans, 388; on onions, 328; 

on scolymus, 293; on tomatoes, 401; 

on turnips, 287. 
Balm, 432. 

Barbarea prascox, 366. 
Barbarea vulgaris, 241, 366. 
Barnard, books by, 245. 
Barrels, 220. 
Barrows, 112. 
Basil, 432. 
Baxter, quoted, 134, 
Beadle, book by, 246. 
Beadle, on soil, 83. 
Beal, on peas, 132. 



Bean, 241, 383; acreage, 13; germina- 
tion, 134; longevity of seeds, 135. 

Beckett, book by, 244. 

Beet, 240,277; acreage, 13; longevity of 
seeds, 135; quantity of seed, 158. 

Beets, storage, 233. 

Benincasa, 242, 422. 

Beta vulgaris, 240, 241, 280. 

Bisulfide of carbon for seeds, 143. 

Black salsify, 292. 

Bochove, Van, book by, 246, 378. 

Books, 242. 

Bordeaux mixture, 205, 211. 
Borecole, 241, 339. 
Bosson, book by, 246, 307. 
Box for transplanting, 192. 
Boxes, planting in, 62. 
Brassica campestris, 288. 
Brassica oleracea, 241, 344, 345. 
Brassica Rapa, 286. 
Bridgeman, books by, 246. 
Bridgeman, on soil, 82. 
Brill, books by, 171, 247, 346. 
Brill, on soil, 82. 
Broad bean, 387. 

Broccoli, 241, 342; germination, 129. 

Brooklyn market, 225. 

Brussels sprouts, £41, 340; storage, 233, 

Buckman, on parsnip, 290. 

Buggy peas, 132. 

Buist, book by, 247. 

Buist, on soil, 82. 

Bulb crops, 240, 314. 

Bulletins, 264. 

Burpee, books by, 248, 27S. 

Burr, book by, 239, 244, 248. 

Bushel box, 217. 



(451) 



452 



Index 



Cabbage, 241, 329, 345; acreage, 13; 
Chinese, 352; composition of , 98; ger- 
mination, 125, 129, 151; longevity of 
seeds, 136; number in sash, 46; selec- 
tion of seeds, 169. 

Cabbage maggot, 200. 

Cabbage storage, 233, 338. 

Cabbages, wintering, 78. 

Canteloupe, 416. 

Cape gooseberry, 410. 

Capital, 19. 

Capsicum annuum, 241, 409. 

Cara^vay, 432. 

Carbonate of copper, 213. 

Carman, book by, 248, 309. 

Carriere, on carrot, 283: on radish, 276. 

Carrot, 2i0, 281; composition of, 98: 
germination, 152; longevity of seeds, 
136; quantity of seed, 158; seeds, 124; 

. storage, 233. 

Carts, 112. 

Carum Petroselinum, 241, 369. 
Catch-crops, 93. 
Catnip, 432. 

Cauliflower, 241, 341; germination, 151; 
longevity of seeds, 136; number in 
sash, 46; selection of seeds, 169; win- 
tering, 78. 

Celeriac, 240, 379. 

Celery, 241, 370; acreage, 13; germina- 
tion, 151, 152; longevity of seeds, 136; 
seeds, 124; selection of seeds, 169. 

Celery storage, 229, 233. 

Cellars, 227. 

Census, quoted, 2, 11, 12, 15. 
Chserophyllum bulbosum, 284. 
Chard, 241, 351. 

Chervil, salad, 369; turnip-rooted, 284. 
Chicory, 363. 
Chinese cabbage, 352. 
Chinese preserving melon, 422. 
Chives, 240, 315. 
Ciboule, 315. 

Cichorium Endivia, 241, 363. 
Cichorium Intybus, 364. 
Citron, 420. 



Citrullus vulgaris, 242, 419. 
City man's garden, 36. 
Cive, 240, 315. 
Clary, 432. 

Classification of crops, 238. 
. Climate, 80. 
Climate and seeds, 129. 
Cloth for hotbeds, 65. 
Club root, 34. 
Club-root experiment, 200. 
Cobbett, books by, 249. 
Cochlearia Armor acia, 240, 298. 
Coldframes, 50, 67. 
Cole crops, 241, 329. 
Color and germination, 128. 
Commercial fertilizers, 96. 
Companion-cropping, 181, 183. 
Compartment pit, 234. 
Composts, 95. 

Condimental plants, 242, 429. 
Copper carbonate, 213. 
Copper sulfate, 211. 
Coriander, 432. 

Corn, germination, 127, 128, 131, 132, 

141; sweet, 242. 
Corn salad, 367. 

Corrosive sublimate for potatoes, 304, 
309. 

Costmary, 432. 
Cover-crops, 93. 
Covers for beds, 65. 
Craig, on tomatoes, 397. 
Crambe maritima, 242, 450. 
Cranefield, on irrigation, 175, 178. 
Cress, 241. 365. 
Crider, book by, 249, 378. 
Crops, classification of, 238. 
Crozier, books by, 249, 346. 
Cucumber, 241, 414; acreage, 13; lon- 
gevity of seeds, 137; seeds, 124. 
Cucumis Anguria, 242, 415. 
Cucumis Melo, 241, 416. 
Cucumis sati\Tis, 241, 415. 
Cucurbita maxima, 421, 422. 
Cucurbita moschata, 421, 422. 
cucurbita Pepo, 421, 422. 



Index 



453 



Cucurbitacas, seeds, 124. 
Cueurbitous crops, 241, 411. 
Cultivating, 118, 
Cultivators, 111. 
Cummins, book by, 249. 
Curing seeds. 141. 
Cynara Scolymus, 242, 449. 

Dandelion, edible, 241, 353 
Darlington, book by, 249. 
Daubeny, quoted, 134. 
Daueus Carota, 240, 283. 
Day, book by, 250, 403 
Devol, quoted, 141. 
Dibbers, 114, 189. 
Dill, 432 . 

Dish-cloth gourd, 422. 
Dock, edible, 242, 445. 
Dolichos sesquipedalis, 388. 
Double-cropping, 181. 
Drainage, 85, 
Drawn plants, 73. 
Dreer, book by, 46. 
Drills, 164. 

Duggar, on beet diseases, 281. 
Duggar, on storage, 229. 

Earle, on tomatoes, 397, 398. 
Eggplant, 241, 403; germination, 151; 

longevity of seeds, 137; number in 

sash, 46. 
Elder, book by, 250. 
Emerson, book by, 250. 
Endive, 241, 361; germination, 152; 

longevity of seeds, 137. 
Equipment, 19. 
Exports, 17. 

Fall-sown plants, 77. 
Farm garden, 41. 
Fennel, 432. 
Fertilizer tests, 100. 
Fertilizing land, 94. 
Fessenden, books by, 250. 
Fitch, book by, 251. 
Fitz, book by, 251, 313. 
Flats, 62, 193. 



Florida, trucking in, 8. 
Flue-heated hotbeds, 64. 
Forcing defined, 45. 
Forcing-hill, 67, 69. 
Forks, 114. 

Formalin for potatoes, 304, 309. 
Formula for fertilizers, 104. 
Frame defined, 46. 
Frame, making, 50. 
Frames, management, 72. 
Franke, cellar of, 230. 
Fungi, 199. 
Fungicides, 211. 

Gardiner, book by, 252. 
Garfield, on asparagus, 440. 
Garlic, 240, 314. 

Geography of vegetable-gardening, 6. 

Georgia, trucking in, 8. 

Germination, 124. 

Germination vs. sprouting, 149. 

Gherkin, 242, 414. 

Glass for gardeners, 44. 

Glazing, 64; cost of, 49. 

Glycine hispida, 388. 

Gofe, on vegetables, 276, 280, 283, 287, 

29D, 328, 344, 350, 360, 377, 379, 382, 

401, 406, 415. 
Goodrich, on potato, 308. 
Grading, 219. 

Gray & Trumbull, 388, 422, 448. 

Green, book by, 243, 252. 

Green, on bushel box, 217; on soil, 81; 

on tomatoes, 398. 
Gregory, books by, 252, 273, 346. 
Greiner, books by, 243, 252, 328, 378. 
Greiner, on soil, 82; quoted, 21, 28. 
Ground cherry, 410. 
Growing of seeds, 165. 
Gumbo, 427. 

Hale, census by, 2, 12, 15. 
Half-hardy plants, 161 . 
Halsted, seed samples, 144. 
Hand-box, 71. 
Hardening-off, 75. 
Hardy plants, 161, 239. 



454 



Index 



Harris, book by, 253. 

Harrowing, 116. 

Harrows, 111. 

Hauck, Quoted, 37. 

Helianthus tuberosus, 242, 448. 

Hellebore, 211. 

Henderson, A., quoted, 215. 

Henderson, books by, 243, 253, 

Henderson on quantity of seeds, 158. 

Henderson, Peter, quoted, 19, 20. 

Hensiow, quoted, 134. 

Hepburn, book by, 254. 

Herbs, sweet, 242, 429. 

Hibiscus eseulentus, 242, 428. 

Hicks, quoted, 160. 

Hoeing, 119. 

Hoes. 112, 114. 

HoUister, book by, 254, 378. 

Hollister, on celery, 373; quoted, 24. 

Holmes, book by, 254. 

Home garden, 31. 

Horehound, 432. 

Horse-radish, 240, 294. 

Hose, 114. 

Hotbed covers, 65. 

Hotbeds, 54. 

Howard, book by, 254. 

Humus, 93. 

Hunn, quoted, 35. 

Huntley, on onions, 328. 

Husk tomato, 241, 409. 

Hyssop, 432. 

Implements, 107. 
Imports, 17. 
Insecticides, 208. 
Insects, 199. 

Ipomcea Batatas, 240, 312. 
Irish, on peppers, 409. 
Irrigation, 173. 

Jacques, book by, 254. 
Jager, book by, 171. 
Jeffries, quoted, 30. 
Jenkins, W. H., quoted, 185. 
Jerusalem artichoke, 242, 447. 



Kale, 241, 339; acreage, 13; longevity of 

seeds, 137; wintering, 78. 
Kerosene emulsion, 209. 
Kiely, P. M., quoted, 8. 
Kinney, on lettuce, 361. 
Kohlrabi, 241, 343; longevity of seeds, 

137. 

Labels, 214. 

Lactuca sativa, 241, 360. 
Lactuca Scariola, 360. 
Landreth, books by, 243, 255. 
Landreth, on soil, 83. 
Landreth, quoted, 22. 
Larbaletrier, quoted, 132. 
Latitude and seeds, 129. 
Lavender, 432. 
Leaf-beet, 351. 

Leek, 240, 314; longevity of seeds, 138: 

storage, 233. 
Leggy plants, 73. 
Lelievre, book by, 255. 
Lepidium sativum, 241, 365. 
Lettuce, 241, 357; germination, 151; 

longevity of seeds, 138 ; number in 

sash, 46; wintering, 78. 
Lima bean, 385, 388. 
Lime, arsenite of, 209. 
Lindley, quoted, 134. 
Livingston, book by, 255, 403. 
London purple, 208. 
Longevity of seeds, 122, 134. 
Long Island wagon, 224. 
Loudon, quoted, 239. 
Lovage, 432. 
Luffa, 242, 422. 
Lupton, book by, 255, 346. 
Lycopersicum esculentum, 241, 401. 
Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium, 401. 

Management of frames, 72. 
Manure for heating, 56. 
Marjoram, 432. 

Market Garden (journal), 255. 
Market-gardeners' private stock, 168. 
Market-gardening, 2. 
Marketing, 214. 



Index 



455 



Market view, 225. 

Marshall, book by, 256. 

Martynia, 242, 428. 

Martynia proboscidea, 242, 428. 

Mats for hotbeds, 6.6. 

M'Mahon, book by, 256. 

MeXeil, book by, 256. 

Medicago lupulina 145. 

Melon, 241, 416; acreage, 13; longevity 

of seeds, 138; seeds, 124. 
Minnesota garden, 43. 
Mitchell, book by, 257, 403. 
Moss, 226. 
Mucuna utilis, 388. 
Mulch, 91. 

Munro, book by, 258. 
Mushroom, 242. 

Muskmelon, 241, 416; ideal, 167; lon- 

ge\-ity of seeds, 138. 
Mustard, 241, 851. 

Nageli, quoted, 128. 
Nasturtium officinale, 211, 365. 
Xeill, book by, 258. 
New Zealand spinach, 350. 
Niven, book hj, 258. 
Noobe, book by, 171. 
Nobbe, on seeds, 144, 145. 
Norfolk, capital at, 30. 
Novelties, 195. 
Nozzles. 204. 

Oemler, book by, 258. 
Oemler, on soil, 82. 

Okra, 242, 427; longevity of seeds, 138. 

Olcott, book by, 258. 

Onion bed picture, 118. 

Onion, 240, 316; composition of, 98; 
germination, 126, 1.52; longevity of 
seeds, 139; selection of seeds, 169. 

Orach, 241, 351. 

Outfits, 24. 

Outside cellar, 227. 

Packages, 220. 

Packing, 215, 219. 

PaiUieux & Bois, book by, 244. 



Paper for hotbeds, 65. 
Paris green, 208. 

Parsley, 241, 368; longevity of seeds, 
139; seeds, 124. 

Parsnip, 240, 288; composition of, 98; 
longevity of seeds, 139; quantity of 
seed, 158; seeds, 124. 

Pastinaea sativa, 240, 290. 

Pea, 241, 380; acreage, 13, 14; germina- 
tion, 152; longevity of seeds, 139; 
quantity of seed, 158. 

Peas, buggy, 132. 

Pedersen, book by, 258. 

Pennyroyal, 432. 

Pepper, 241, 408; longevity of seeds, 
139. 

Peppermint, 432. 
Pe-tsai, 352. 
Phaseolus lunatiis, 388. 
Phaseolus multiflorus, 387. 
Phaseolus \Tilgaris, 388. 
Physalis, 241, 409. 
Physalis Peruviana, 410. 
Phj^salis pubescens, 410. 
Pie plant, 441. 
Pipe-heated hotbeds, 63. 
Piper nigrum, 409. 
Pisum arvense, 382. 
Pisum sativum, 241, 382. 
Pit, 232. 

Plant diseases, 205. 
Plants for fertilizers, 101. 
Plowing, 116. 
Plows, 111. 

Portulaca oleracea, 241. 

Potato, 240, 301; acreage, 13, 14; stor- 
age, 233; potato sorters, 222, 223, 305, 
306. 

Pot-herb crops, 241, 347. 
Preservation of seeds, 141. 
Price, book by, 259, 313. 
Price of seeds, 159. 
Principle, discussed, 237. 
Profits, 4. 

Provancher, book by, 259. 
Provancher, on soil, 83. 



456 



Index 



Pulse crops, 241, 380. 
Pumpkin, 242, 420; seeds, 124. 
Pumps, 120, 203. 
Purity of seeds, 143. 
Purcilane, 241, 354. 

Quantity of seed required, 157. 
Quick soil, 80, 85. 
Quinn, book by, 259 
Quiim, on soil, 82. 
Quinn, quoted, 21. 

Radish, 240, 273; germination, 151; 

longevity of seeds, 139, 140; quantity 

of seed, 158. 
Rakes, 112, 114. 
Rane, on storage, 235. 
Raphanus sativus, 240, 276. 
Rawson, books by, 243, 259, 378. 
Rawson, on soil, 82. 
Rawson, on sterilizing soil, 202. 
Rawson. quoted. 20, 29, 51. 
Resting land, 94. 
Rheum Rhapontieum, 242, 445. 
Rhubarb, 242, 441; forcing, 69. 
Roberts, on potato, 309. 
Roberts, on seeds, 160. 
Roberts, quoted, 41. 
Roe, book by, 260. 
Roessle, book by, 260, 378. 
Rogueing, 166. 
Rolfs, book by. 243, 260. 
Rollers, 111. 
Rolling, 119. 
Root, book by, 260, 403. 
Root crops, 240, 271. 
Roots, storage, 226. 233. 
Rosemary, 432. 
Rotation, 93. 
Round seeds, 125. 
Rumex, species, 446. 
Rutabaga. 240, 288. 

Sage, 432. 
Sagot, quoted, 130. 
Salad chervil, 369. 
Salad crops, 241, 356. 



Salsify, 240, 291; black, 292; longevity 
of seeds, 140; quantity of seed, 159; 
Spanish, 293. 

Sash defined, 46. 

Savory, 432. 

Scarifiers, 112. 

Scarlet runner, 388. 

Schenck, book by, 260. 

Scolymus, 293. 

Scolymus Hispanicus, 293. 

Scorzonera, 240, 292. 

Scorzonera Hispaniea, 240, 292. 

Sea- kale, 242, 449. 

Seedage, account of, 122. 

Seed-bed, description of, 161. 

Seed control stations, 144, 

Seed-drills, 164. 

Seed farms, 15. 

Seed growing, 165. 

Seed sowing, 155. 

Seed testing, 143. 

Seeds, account of, 122; hotbeds, 61; 

price of, 159; where grown, 170. 
Selecting seed plants, 166. 
Shallot, 240, 315. 
Shaw, on double-cropping, 185. 
Shaw, quoted, 43. 
Shinn, book by, 260. 
Shovels, 114. 
Sieva bean, 390. 
Smith, I. C, quoted, 26. 
Smith, J. M., on cabbage, 330. 
Soap insecticides, 209, 210. 
Soil, discussion of, 80. 
Solanaceous crops, 241, 392. 
Solanum coccineum, 406. 
Solanum integrifolium, 406. 
Solanum Melongena, 241, 406. 
Solanum tuberosum, 240, 308. 
Sorrel, edible, 242, 445. 
Sorting, 216, 219. 
Sowing in hotbeds, 61. 
Sowing of seeds, 155. 
Spade, 114. 
Spanish salsify, 293. 
Spearmint, 432. 



Index 



457 



Sphagnum moss, 226. 

Spinacea oleracea, 241, 350. 

Spinach, 241, 347; New Zealand, 350. 

Spinase, acreage, 13, 14. 

Spraying, 203. 

Spraying machinery, 120. 

Squash, 242, 420: longevity of seeds, 

140; seeds, 124. 
Starnes, map of Georgia, 7. 
Starnes, on watermelon, 417, 419. 
Stewart, Henry, book by, 260. 
Stewart, Homer L., book by, 261, 378. 
Storing, 214, 224. 
Storing seeds, 130. 
Straw mats, 66. 
Strickland, quoted, 134. 
Sturtevant, histories of vegetables, 276, 

280, 283, 290, 292, 293, 298, 308, 313, 

328, 345, 350, 361, 377, 379, 382, 388, 

401, 406, 409, 415, 417, 422, 426, 428, 

440, 445, 449, 450. 
Sturtevant, on germination, 128, 131, 

132, 134, 135. 
Subsoiling, 91. 
Succession-cropping, 181. 
Surface mulch, 91. 
Swamps, reclaimed, 81. 
Sweet corn, 242, 423. 
Sweet herbs, 242, 429. 
Sweet potato, 240, 310; acreage, 13, 14; 

composition of, 98. 

Taft, on hotbeds, 60; on irrigation. 176. 
Tansy, 432. 

Taraxacum officinale, 241. 
Tarragon, 432. 
Tender plants, 161, 239. 
Terry, book by, 261, 309. 
Testing seeds, 143. 
Tetragonia expansa, 350. 
Texas, trucking in, 10. 
Thompson, book by, 261, 445. 
Thorburn, book by, 261. 
Threshing and seeds, 1.32. 
Thyme, 432. 
Tile draining, 86. 



Till ge, 87, 172. 
Tillinghast, books by. 261. 
Tobacco dust, 210. 
Todd, book by, 202. 

Tomato, 211, 392; acreage, 13, 14; com- 
position of, 98; germination, 151, 152; 
longevity of seeds, 140; number in 
sash, 46. 

Tools, account of, 107. 

Tools and equipment, 24. 

Tracy, plan by, 33. 

Tragopogon porrifolius, 240, 292. 

Transplanting, 187. 

Trenching, 89. 

Trowels, 114. 

Truck gardening, 2, 14. 

Truck wagon, 223, 224. 

Trucks, 114. 

Tuber crops, 240, 301. 

Turnip, 240, 285; germination, 152; 
longevity of seeds, 141, 142. 

Umbelliferse, seeds, 121. 
Unripe seeds, 130. 

Valerianella olitoria, 368. 
Varieties, choosing, 194. 
Vaughan, book by, 262, 378. 
Vegetable sponge, 422. 
Velvet bean, 388. 
Ventilating hotbeds, 75. 
Viability, 122. 
Vicia Faba, 387. 
Vick, book by, 262. 
Vilmorin, book by, 243. 
Vilmorin, on carrot, 283. 
Vilmorin, quoted, 135. 
Vine crops, 241, 411. 
Vitality, 122. 

Voorhees, quoted, 98, 104, 105, 272, 380. 

Wagon, truck, 223, 224. 
Wagons, 112, 114. 
Warner, book by, 262. 
Washington, advice by, 165, 
Water cress, 241, 365. 
Watering hotbeds, 73. 



458 



Index 



Watermelon, 242, -ill; acreage, 13; lon- 
gevity of seeds, 138. 

Watson, book by, 262. 

Waugh, book by, 262. 

Waiigh, on cucumber, 415; on salads, 
356, 363, 367. 

Wax gourd, 242, 422. 

Weeders, 112, 114. 

Weeds, 196. 

Welsh onion, 315. 

Whale-oil soap, 210. 

Wlieel-boes, 112. 

White, book by, 262. 

White hellebore, 211. 



^Yhitner, book by, 263. 

Wickson, book by, 243, 26S. 

Wickson, on soil, 83. 

Williamson and Dunn, book by, 244. 

Windsor bean, 387. 

Wing, on beans, 388. 

Winkler, book by, 46. 

Wintering plants, 77. 

Wittmack, writings of, 388, 422. 

Wormwood, 432. 

Zea Mays, 242. 426. . 
Zit-kwa, 242. 



The Best and Newest 
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CONNECTED WITH AGRI- 
CULTURAL AND RURAL 
LIFE ARE HERE MENTIONED. 
EACH BOOK IS THE WORK 
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HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE, 
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The following volumes are now ready: 

THE SOIL. By F. H. King, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45 

illustrations. 75 cents. 
THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. By I. P. Roberts, of Cornell Tniver- 

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THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. By E. G. Lodeman. late of Cornell Vni- 

versity. 399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00. 

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. By H. H. Wing, of Cornell University. 

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THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. By L. H. Bailey. Third 

edition. 516 pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25. 
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FERTILIZERS. By E. B. Voorhees, of New Jersey Experiment Station. 

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THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. By L. H. Bailey. Third edition. 

300 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.25. 
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. King, University of Wisconsin. 

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THE FARMSTEAD. By I. P. Roberts. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.75. 
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PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. Arthur, Purdue University. 
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41 



WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY 



THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NA- 
TIVE FRUITS. By L. H. BAILEY, Pro- 
fessor of Horticulture in the Cornell University. 

472 PAGES -125 ILLUSTRATIONS — S2.00 

In this entertaining volume, the origin and de- 
velopment of the fruits peculiar to North America 
are inquired into, and the personality of those horti- 
cultural pioneers whose almost forgotten labors 
have given us our most valuable fruits is touched 
upon. There has been careful research into the 
history of the various fruits, including inspection 
of the records of the great European botanists who 
have given attention to American economic botany. 
The conclusions reached, the information presented, 
and the suggestions as to future developments, can- 
not but be valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower, 
while the terse style of the author is at its best in 
his treatment of the subject. 

The Evolution op our Native Fruits discusses The Rise of 
the American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts 
to Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours, 
The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of 
Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early Vine Experiments Fail ? 
Synopsis of the American Grapes) ; The Strange History of the Mul- 
berries (The Early Silk Industry, The "Multicaulis Craze,"}; Evolu- 
tion of American Plums and Cherries (Native Plums in General, 
The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach Plum Groups, 
Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums, Native Cherries, 
Dwarf Cherry Group); Native Apples (Indigenous Species, Amelio- 
ration has begun); Origin of American Raspberry-growing (Early 
American History, Present Types, Outlying Types); Evolution of 
Blackberry and Dewberry Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and 
Its Kin, The Dewberries, Botanical Names); Various Typos of 
Berry-like Fruits (The Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry, 
Buffalo Berry, Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberrj^, Straw- 
berry); Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple 
Tribe, Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits) ; General Remarks on the Improve- 
ment of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably 
Should Be Done). 



WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY 



HE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: 



JL A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested 
by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. 

BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell 
University. 

THIRD EDITION— 515 PACES — 22 ILLUSTRATIONS — 82.00 

To those interested in the underlying philosophy 
of plant life, this volume, written in a most enter- 
taining style, and fully illustrated, will prove wel- 
come. It treats of the modification of plants under 
cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its atti- 
tude on this interesting subject is characterized 
by the author's well-known originality and inde- 
pendence of thought. Incidentally, there is stated 
much that will be valuable and suggestive to the 
working horticulturist, as well as to the man or 
woman impelled by a love of nature to horticul- 
tural pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a 
philosophy of horticulture, in which all interested 
may find inspiration and instruction. 

The Survival of the Unlike comprises thirty essays touching 
upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant 
Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxej^s Army and the Russian 
Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact and Causes of 
Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality in Fruits, Natural 
History of Synonyms, Reflective Impressions, Relation of Seed- 
bearing to Cultivation, Variation after Birth, Relation between 
American and Eastern. Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Prob- 
lems of Climate and Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex 
In Fruits, Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); and Tracing the 
Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated Straw^berry, 
Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the Carnation, Petunia, 
The Garden Tomato, etc.). 




CYCLOPEDIA Of 
AMERICAN HORTICULTURE 

COMPRISING DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF HORTICULTURAL 
CROPS, AND ORIGINAL DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THE SPECIES OF 
FRUITS, VEGETABLES, FLOWERS AND ORNAMENTAL PLANTS KNOWN 
TO BE IN THE MARKET IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA 

By L. H. bailey 

ASSISTED BY MANY EXPERT CULTIVATORS AND BOTANISTS 

In Four Quarto Volumes, 
Illustrated with over Two Thousand Original Engravings 

THIS monumental work, the most comprehensive 
review of the vegetable world yet made by an 
American, is now in the press. Though distinctly 
an American work, not only plants indigenous to 
the North American continent are mentioned, but 
also all the species known to be in the horticul- 
tural trade in North America, of whatever origin. 
It is really a survey of the cultivated plants of the 
world. 

The Editor, Professor L. H. Bailey, has been 
gathering material for this Cyclopedia for many 
years. He has enlisted the cooperation of many 
men of attainments, either in science or practice, 
and the Cyclopedia has the unique distinction of 
presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged 
and perfectly accessible form, the best knowledge of 
the best specialists in America upon gardening, 
fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the 



like, as well as exact botanical information. It is 
all fresh, and not a rehash of old material. No 
precedent has been followed ; the work is upon its 
own original plan. 

Many scientific botanical authors of justly high 
repute decline to give attention to the important 
characters of cultivated plants, confining their work 
to the species in the original forms only. Pro- 
fessor Bailey takes the view that a subject of com- 
mercial importance, one which engages the attention 
and affects the livelihood of thousands of bright 
people, is decidedly worthy the investigation of the 
trained botanist. In the Cyclopedia of American 
Horticulture, therefore, very full accounts are given 
of the botanical features of all important commercial 
plants, as the apple, cabbage, rose, etc. At the same 
time, practical cultivators submit observations upon 
culture, marketing, and the like, and frequently two 
opinions are presented upon the same subject from 
different localities, so that the reader may have 
before him not only complete botanical information, 
but very fully the best practice in the most favor- 
able localities for the perfection of any fruit or 
vegetable or economic plant. 

ILLISTRATIONS 

The pictorial character of the work is likewise nota- 
ble. There are nearly three thousand illustrations, 
and they are made expressly for this work, either 
from accurate photographs or from the specimens. 
These illustrations have been drawn by competent 



horticultural artists, in nearly ever}' case under tht' 
eye of the Editor, or with the supervision of some 
one of the sub-editors. No trade'' cuts are used. 

In planning the illustrations, artistic effect has 
been kept in view, and while no drawing is used 
which does not show its subject with perfect scien- 
tific accuracy, the monotonous so-called ^^botanicaP' 
outlines, often made from lifeless herbarium speci- 
mens, are notably absent. The intention is to show 
the life of the plant, not merely its skeleton. 

CONTRIBITORS, SYSTEM, ETC. 

As above mentioned, the contributors are men 
eminent as cultivators or as specialists in the various 
subjects. The important articles are signed, and it 
is expected that the complete work will include fully 
5,000 signed contributions by horticulturists, culti- 
vators and botanists. 

The arrangement is alphabetical as to the genera, 
but systematic in the species. A very simple but 
complete plan of key-letters is used, and the whole 
arrangement is toward ease of reference as well as 
completeness of information. To each large genus 
there is a separate alphabetic index. 

Important commercial subjects are treated usually 
under the best known name, whether it be the 
scientific or common" designation. Thus, the apple 
is fully discussed as apple, rather than as Pyrits 
Mollis, and the carnation comes into view in the 
third letter of the alphabet, not as Diantlius Garyo- 
phyllus. Carefully edited cross-references make it 



easy to find any desired subject, however, in the 
shortest time. 

The plan of presenting the full details of cul- 
ture of important plants, through the views of 
acknowledged practical experts upon the various 
subjects, assures the great value of the book to the 
man or woman who is obtaining a living from 
horticultural pursuits. 

A special feature of the Cyclopedia of American 
Horticulture is its wealth of bibliographic reference. 
The world ^s horticultural literature has been thor- 
oughly searched, and most carefully indexed, so that 
the student will find citations to nearly every avail- 
able article or illustration upon any subject consulted. 

DETAILS Of PIBLICATION 

The Cyclopedia of American Horticulture is to 
be completed in four handsome quarto volumes, 
embracing about two thousand pages, with more 
than that number of original illustrations. It is 
carefully printed upon specially made paper of a 
permanent character. The first volume (A to 
509 pages, 743 illustrations, 9 plates) and the second 
volume (E to M, 544 pages, 710 illustrations, 10 
plates) are now ready, and the work is expected to 
be completed early in the year 1901. 

The work is sold only by subscription, and 
orders will be accepted for the full set only. 
Terms and further information may be had of 
the Publishers, 



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ESSONS WITH PLANTS: Sugges- 



1 V tions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of 
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SECOND EDITION— 491 PACES— 446 ILLUSTRATIONS— 1 2 MO- 
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